Science Bee Drive Time

This disease, also known as "Bronze John", is mentioned on the tombstone of Walter Reed, a U.S. Army physician who confirmed the theory, proposed by a Cuban physician named Carlos Finlay, that this disease was transmitted through Aedes aegypti. For the point, name this viral disease that is transmitted through mosquitos, named for the jaundice it causes.

Yellow Fever (or Yellow Jack; or Yellow Plague; accept Bronze John before mentioned)

One of these objects is the entity behind the Einstein cross, which arises due to gravitational lensing. The distinction between these entities and blazars is the direction of emission of a relativistic jet, and these objects are often categorized as radio-loud or radio-quiet. For the point, name these active galactic nuclei, the most luminous objects in the universe.

Quasars (accept Quasi-Stellar Object; or QSO; prompt on “Active Galactic Nucleus” before mentioned)

Collagen binding activates proteins such as kallikrein and von Willebrand factor during this process's namesake "cascade." The drug Warfarin inhibits this process by reducing Vitamin K. Thrombin triggers the formation of a fibrin network during this process, which is impaired in hemophiliacs. Platelets aggregate at the site of a wound in, for the point, what process that stops blood loss?

Blood Clotting (or Coagulation; accept Thrombosis)

Root-produced abscisic acid causes the closure of these structures, which are inactive during the day in CAM plants. These structures are surrounded by two guard cells and are located mainly on the bottom of leaves to take in carbon dioxide. For the point, name these pores that regulate gas exchange in plants.

Stomata (accept Stomates; accept Guard Cells before mentioned)

An isotope of potassium decays to this element in a radiometric dating technique named for the two elements. This noble gas is the third-most abundant element in Earth's atmosphere after nitrogen and oxygen. For the point, identify this noble gas named for the Greek for "lazy" whose atomic number is 18.

Argon (or Ar; accept K-Ar dating)

Healthy examples of this tissue exclusively have chondrocyte cells. The amount of proteoglycan and collagen in this tissue determines if it is hyaline, fibro, or elastic. Along with bone tissue, this tissue is destroyed in osteoarthritis. This tissue makes up the skeletons of skates, rays, and sharks. For the point, name this flexible structural tissue that lines joints and makes up the nose and ear.

Cartilage (accept Cartilaginous tissue)

The North Sea is an epeiric sea on one of these entities. This entity ends at the point of an increasing slope called a 'break', before which lie the regions called the slope and rise. The pelagic environment of these entities comprise the neritic zone, while the benthic zone is its seafloor region. For the point, name these portions of a continent submerged under an area of shallow water that can be exposed when sea levels drop.

Continental shelf

Although not indicative of HSV-1 encephalitis, high levels of this substance in cerebrospinal fluid are indicative of bacterial meningitis. This substance is produced in the Cori Cycle from pyruvate and then converted back to pyruvate in the liver, leading to gluconeogenesis. A byproduct of anaerobic metabolism is, for the point, what compound that is the cause of muscle soreness after a person undergoes intense exercise?

Lactic Acid (or Lactate or CH3CH(OH)COOH)

Electrically-powered types of these objects operate when the object's magnetic field and its electric current in a wire generate torque to be applied on the object's shaft. Mechanically, these objects typically consist of a stator, commutator, windings, and a rotor supported by bearings. For the point, name this family of machines designed to convert forms of energy into mechanical energy.

Motor (or Engine)

The opposite of this word names a type of "deep scattering" that gave evidence for the existence of quarks. Young's modulus is also named for this property of a material. According to kinetic molecular theory, gas particles undergo collisions described by this term where the total kinetic energy remains the same. For the point, what term describes materials like rubber that return to their original shape after a deformation?

elastic (or elasticity; accept elastic collisions; accept elastic modulus; do not accept or prompt on "inelastic")

This function names a law that is a generalized form of the Pythagorean theorem. This trigonometric function is obtained by dividing the adjacent side of a right triangle by its hypotenuse. The secant function is the reciprocal of, for the point, what mathematical function, the co-function of sine?

Cosine (accept Law of Cosines)

These bodies of water become enriched with nutrients during eutrophication. When a river meander is cut off, the "oxbow" varieties of these bodies of water can form. For the point, name these bodies of water that come in glacial and fluvial varieties, examples of which include Michigan and Superior.

Lakes (accept Oxbow Lakes; accept glacial lakes; accept fluvial lakes)

This process is the final step of hot recrystallization, which is sped up using a vacuum flask and a device named for Ernst Büchner. This physical process is used to separate sand and water. For the point, name this method of physical separation that isolates solids from liquids, which can use porous paper and a funnel.

filtration (or filtering)

Pyrex mirrors and is supported by a "horseshoe" mount. These devices, which can be classified into reflecting and refracting varieties, were used to capture images of the Double Helix Nebula and the Pillars of Creation. For the point, name these optical devices used to observe stars, examples of which include the James Webb and Hubble.

Telescopes (accept James Webb Space Telescope; accept Hubble Space Telescope)

This person analyzed samples of pitchblende and torbernite in experiments that led her to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. Also the winner of the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics, this is, for the point, what Polish-French scientist who discovered polonium and radium, and conducted research on radioactivity with her husband, Pierre?

Marie Curie (or Marie Salomea Skłodowska–Curie; or Maria Salomea Skłodowska; prompt on "Curie")

This celestial body was in the background when Alexei Leonov performed a 12-minute spacewalk outside Voskhod 2, and this celestial body was the subject of an impromptu image taken by Voyager 1 which was dubbed by Carl Sagan as the Pale Blue Dot. During the Gemini 12 mission, Buzz Aldrin took the first "space selfie" with, for the point, what celestial body that is the third planet from the sun?

Earth

Along with Procyon and Betelgeuse, this star forms one of the angles of the Winter Triangle. This star is part of a binary system with a white dwarf with a diameter approximately the same size as Earth, and this star's apparent magnitude is approximately twice as great as Canopus. For the point, identify this star in Canis Major, the brightest in the night sky.

Sirius A (or The Dog Star; accept Alpha Canis Majoris; do not accept or prompt on "Sirius B")

This set of numbers was shown to be uncountable by Cantor's diagonalization argument. The rational numbers are dense in this set of numbers, which also includes the irrational numbers. For the point, what set contains any number that can be expressed on a number line, contrasted with complex numbers?

Real numbers (prompt on "R")

This element can be added to an alkene to form an epoxide. This element is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, and the diatomic form of this element is a product of photosynthesis. For the point, name this element with atomic number 8 that combines with iron to form rust.

Oxygen (or O; accept Ozone-Oxygen Cycle; accept O2; accept Ozone or O3 before "alkene" is mentioned)

Those chaperonins assist the folding of these compounds into secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures, which are undone by the process of denaturation. In the ribosome, translation converts messenger RNA into, for the point, what macromolecules that are made up of amino acid monomers and whose subtypes include antibodies and enzymes?

Proteins (or Polypeptides, prompt on “Amino Acids” before mentioned)

These structures that can produce tephra were observed by the Voyager 2 spacecraft on Triton. The Pacific Ring of Fire is home to many of these structures that can be found at convergent and divergent tectonic plate boundaries, examples of which include Krakatoa and Mauna Loa. Cinder cone, submarine, and shield are all types of, for the point, what type of structure from which lava erupts?

volcano (accept cinder cone volcano; accept submarine volcano; accept shield volcano)

A form of this process involves the use of PEP carboxylase to produce oxaloacetic acid. The most abundant enzyme in the world, RuBisCO, is used in this process alongside ATP and NADPH to produce the three-carbon molecule G3P during the Calvin cycle. The chloroplast is the site of, for the point, what process in which plants use light energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose?

Photosynthesis (accept C4 Photosynthesis)

Alpha-1 anti-trypsin is an inherited genetic disease that degrades the elasticity of this organ, which is surrounded by a pleural membrane. A spirometer can be used to measure the function of this organ, which receives deoxygenated blood via the pulmonary artery from the heart. Alveoli can be found in, for the point, what primary organ of the respiratory system that facilities gas exchange and helps us breathe?

lungs (do not accept or prompt on "alveoli")

One phenomena associated with these events is subject to Omori's law, which describes how the frequency of those events decreases reciprocal to the amount of time elapsing from its cause. These events are concentrated at their hypocenter, or focus, and these events can be followed by aftershocks. For the point, identify this type of seismic event whose magnitude is measured on the Richter scale.

Earthquakes (accept Tremors; prompt on "Aftershock" before mentioned; prompt on "Seismic Event" or synonymous answers before mentioned)

A method named for Euler repeats this operation to find the limit of a series. This operation is applied to trapezoids in a method for approximating integrals. Doing this operation on two vectors applies the parallelogram law by aligning them, and, with multiplication, this is the only commutative arithmetic operation. Zero is the identity of, for the point, what operation represented by a plus sign?

Addition (or Adding; accept Sum; or Summation; accept Plus before mentioned)

The first case of the current outbreak of this disease was reported by the Center for Disease Control to have been contracted by an inmate in Colorado in 2022. There are three subtypes of this disease that have been detected in the United States, one of which is a re-assortment of the Eurasian H5 and the North American N2 viruses. The double crested cormorant helped spread, for the point, what virus that spreads through contact with infected animals in the same family as chickens or geese?

Avian Influenza (both underlined portions required) (or Bird Flu; accept H5N1 Virus; accept HPAI)

The gravitational definition of this quantity states it is the equivalent of an object's mass multiplied by its gravitational acceleration, whereas the operational definition states this quantity is equivalent to the amount of force exerted by an object. The newton is the SI unit that measures, for the point, what quantity, commonly measured in the U.S. in pounds?

Weight

Many members of this order contain a structure called a melon, which houses the spermaceti organ. Filter-feeding members of this order possess keratin plates called baleen. Members of this order breathe through a specialized nostril on their backs called a blowhole. For the point, name this order of marine mammals that includes porpoises, dolphins, and whales.

Cetaceans [[see-TAY-shuns]] (accept Whales before mentioned; prompt on "dolphin" or "porpoise" before mentioned)

These periods involve paradigm shifts as described in Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of. Along with the Renaissance, one of these periods is held to have not been a radical break from the Middle Ages in the "continuity thesis." The publication of Copernicus's theories is considered the beginning of one of, for the point, what type of social era, which included the development of modern biology and chemistry?

Scientific Revolutions (prompt on "Copernican Revolution")

For an ideal block and tackle setup, this quantity is equal to the number of rope sections supporting the block. For a wedge, this quantity is inversely proportional to the wedge's slope. This quantity is demonstrated by the law of the lever, which relates opposing weights and arm length. Used to measure the effectiveness of simple machines, for the point, what is this output force to input force?

Mechanical Advantage

Chiral symmetry breaking and asymptotic freedom are among the properties of the quantum chromodynamics theory of this force, which confines smaller particles into hadrons. This force, whose magnitude increases with distance, is mediated by gluons. Binding together neutrons and protons in the nucleus, for the point, what is this fundamental force which is much more powerful than the weak force?

Strong Nuclear Force (or Strong Interaction; or Color Force; prompt on "quantum chromodynamics" before mentioned)

These phenomena were less frequent during the Spörer and Maunder Minima. The position of these phenomena predicts the location of coronal loops and solar flares. The frequency of these phenomena varies on an eleven-year cycle which corresponds to the reversal of a magnetic field. Found on the surface of the sun, for the point, what are these temporary darker regions sometimes visible from Earth without a telescope?

Sunspots

In his book How to Live Longer and Feel Better, this scientist advocated taking megadoses of vitamin C to prevent the common cold. This scientist outlined the modern understanding of an atom's tendency to attract shared electrons in his book The Nature of the Chemical Bond. The Nobel Prize in Peace and Chemistry were given to, for the point, what American scientist?

Linus Pauling (or Linus Carl Pauling)

Due to having temperatures near the surface of the sun, this region passes the Curie temperature and is not ferromagnetic. This layer, whose existence is demonstrated by PKiKP waves, is composed of a solid iron-nickel alloy. The liquid outer core surrounds, for the point, what solid metal layer of the Earth?

Inner Core (prompt on "core"; do not accept or prompt on "outer core")

This scientist discovered the elements cesium and rubidium with Gustav Kirchhoff. This scientist lends his name to a device that manipulates airflow at the top and fuel supply at the bottom to control combustion rate. A common type of open-flame burner is named for, for the point, what German chemist?

Robert Bunsen (or Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen; accept Bunsen Burner)

For an object to be in static equilibrium, this force's metacenter must be above the center of gravity. This force, which equals density times gravity times volume, is opposed by the hydrostatic pressure gradient. This force equals the weight of the fluid that is displaced according to the Archimedes principle. Objects float in liquid due to, for the point, what force?

Buoyant force (or Buoyancy; accept Upthrust)

In their simplest form, these devices possess a vertical portion, the gnomon, and a horizontal portion, the style. Along with specialized candles and water drip clocks, these were among the earliest devices to mark the time of day. The position of shadows is used in, for the point, what devices that determine the time?

Sundial

Large circular holes in these objects are called moulins. Deposits created by these objects include eskers and drumlins. Cirques, fjords , and moraines were created by the retreat of these objects which break down at the coast via calving, forming icebergs. Greenland and Antarctica are covered in, for the point, what massive ice formations?

Glaciers (prompt on "glacial lake")

Patients who fail to develop this structure may develop Probst bundles to compensate. Damage to this structure can result in alien hand syndrome or Dr. Strangelove syndrome. This structure has a Latin name meaning "tough body." This structure is severed in patients who undergo a split brain procedure, which is sometimes used to treat epilepsy. The two hemispheres of the brain are linked by, for the point, what structure?

Corpus Callosum (or Callosal Commissure)

These objects can form when an empty cavity, such as a gas bubble, is filled with groundwater that deposits crystalline minerals. These objects are smaller analogs to vugs and crystal caves. Coming from the Greek word for "Earth-Like," for the point, what are these hollow rocks containing crystals?

Geode

A type of scattering found in these substances can give a blue appearance to motorcycle smoke or flour mixed into water. These substances, which exhibit the Tyndall effect, include emulsions and aerosols. Common examples of these substances include milk, fog, and foam. Insoluble particles are suspended within another in, for the point, what type of mixture?

Colloid (accept Colloidal Suspension; prompt on "suspension")

One sessile clade in this phylum has a symbiotic relationship with clownfish, providing shelter in exchange for cleaning. This phylum is characterized by a specialized type of cell that releases stinging toxins on contact. Sea Anemone, Jellies, and Coral are all a part of, for the point, which animal phylum?

Cnidarians [["nigh"-"DARE"-ee-uns]] (prompt on "Jellies"; be lenient on pronunciation)

A loop example of these materials is called a Josephson junction. Through the Meissner effect, these materials expel magnetic field lines. The BCS theory of these materials posits that phonons mediate the binding of electrons into Cooper pairs. Lacking electrical resistance, for the point, what are these materials with a "high temperature" variety?

Superconductor (accept Superconductivity; prompt on "conductor")

When oxygen is present, this protein produces phosphoglycolate and 3-phosphoglycerate. In C4 plants, this protein has reduced specificity and is located in the bundle sheath cells. This protein is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and catalyzes the start of the Calvin cycle. The carboxylation of RuBP in photosynthesis occurs due to, for the point, what major enzyme?

RuBisCO [[roo-BIH-skoh]] (or RuBPCase; or RuBPco; accept Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase)

An autoclave uses "wet-heat" to leverage hydrolysis to perform this task on glassware, rendering it aseptic. 70 percent is the most effective concentration of isopropyl alcohol for performing this task. The killing of microorganisms on lab equipment and other surfaces is done through, for the point, what method?

Sterilization (accept word forms and answers such as "making sterile; accept answers indicating "killing microorganism" before mentioned; prompt on answers such as "cleaning")

When originally discovered, these objects were nicknamed "LGM," or little green men. One of these bodies in the Crab Nebula emits X-rays. These bodies are only detectable if one of their poles points toward the Earth. Named for periodically emitting bursts of radio waves, for the point, what are these rapidly rotating neutron stars?

Pulsar (accept Pulsating Radio Source; prompt on "Little Green Men" or "LGM" before mentioned; prompt on "Neutron Star" before mentioned)

When this process occurs over a single geographic range, it is termed "sympatric." The allopatric type of this process occurs due to geographic isolation, and new branches on phylogenetic trees are formed by this process. The inability of two populations of organisms to breed is caused by, for the point, what ecological process?

Speciation (accept Centrifugal Speciation; accept Sympatric Speciation; accept Allopatric Speciation; accept Peripatric Speciation; accept Parapatric Speciation; prompt on "Evolution")

Torque is equal to the moment of inertia multiplied by the tangential form of this quantity. In general relativity, it is impossible to distinguish between forces caused by gravity and this quantity. Often measured in units per meter squared, for the point, what is this quantity measuring rate of change in velocity?

Acceleration (accept Centripetal acceleration; accept Tangential acceleration)

The cantilevered type of these objects are supported only from one end. One common type of these objects has two horizontal flanges connected by a vertical web, known as the "I" type of these objects. Having much greater length than width, for the point, what are these fundamental structural components?

Beam (accept Cantilevered beam; accept I-beam)

One algorithm for this task that uses paired comparisons is named after garden gnomes. Exchange-based algorithms for this task have a worst-case runtime of "Big O of n squared." Common algorithms like bubble, quick, and merge name types of, for the point, what task of organizing an array or list into a desired order?

Sorting (or Sorting algorithm; accept Bogo, Gnome, Exchange, Bubble, Quick, or Merge Sort)

This man's proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra was created to refute D'Alembert's false proof. This man names a theorem relating the electric field to the charge distribution, and this man also names a distribution shaped like a bell curve. The Normal Distribution is named for, for the point, what German mathematician?

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (accept Gaussian curve or curvature; accept Gauss's law or flux theorem; accept Gaussian distribution or Gauss's distribution; accept Laplace-Gauss distribution)

This constellation contains a notable binary system made of Mizar and Alcor. Major stars in this constellation include Dubhe and Merak, which can be used to locate Polaris in another constellation. The "Big Dipper" is found in, for the point, what northern hemisphere constellation?

Ursa Major (or Great Bear; accept Ursa Major Moving Group or Ursa Major Association; prompt on the "Big Dipper" before read; prompt on "the Plough")

Along with placozoa, this is the only animal phylum to lack true, differentiated tissues. This phylum is usually considered to be the most basal animal lineage, making it the sister taxon to all other animals. For the point, name this simple animal phylum, which contains sponges.

Porifera (prompt on "sponges" before mentioned)

Due to this phenomenon, changes in wind velocity can cause a hook echo on weather radar. This phenomenon's namesake radar is used by police radar guns to determine a car's velocity. This phenomenon is visualized with the bunching of waves in front of a moving source. Redshift is caused by, for the point, what phenomenon in which a pitch shifts with movement, as with a siren driving by?

Doppler effect (or Doppler shift; accept Doppler radar; prompt on "red shift" or "blue shift" before mentioned)

The motion of these devices is described using the small angle approximation of "sine theta equals theta". A system with two of these devices attached end-to-end exhibits chaotic behavior. Foucault demonstrated the rotation of the Earth using one of these devices, which is also a simple harmonic oscillator. For the point, name these devices that consist of a mass hanging on a string.

pendulums (accept Foucault's pendulum; accept double pendulum; accept ballistic pendulum; prompt on "simple harmonic oscillator" or "SHO")

This genetic disorder may be caused by mutations in the P gene or the TYR gene, the latter of which contains tyrosinase, an enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Oculocutaneous and ocular are common forms of, for the point, what genetic condition where the body produces little to no melanin, causing a lack of pigment in a person's skin, hair, and eyes?

Albinism (accept Albino; accept Achromasia; accept Oculocutaneous Albinism before mentioned; accept Ocular Albinism before mentioned)

The Aleutian arc was formed by subduction along these types of locations, which were explored by vehicles such as Kaiko and Trieste. The deepest one of these locations is named after a nearby Pacific Island Chain, with its deepest point being Challenger Deep. For the point, name these depressions in the ground caused by tectonic plate movement, some of which include the Marianas.

Oceanic Trenches (accept Marianas Trench)

A variety of this mineral, along with iridium, is found at the K-Pg boundary and provides evidence for the hypothesis that an asteroid impact killed the dinosaurs. This mineral is found at the bottom of Bowen's reaction series. The "shocked" variety of this mineral was found at the Chicxulub crater, and its chemical name is silicon dioxide. For the point, name this mineral that is a seven on the Mohs hardness scale.

Quartz (accept Shocked Quartz)

Features of this constellation include the Barnard's Loop, which is an emission nebula located in the constellation's molecular cloud complex. The horsehead nebula is in this constellation's most defining feature, and the brightest stars in this constellation include Rigel and Betelgeuse. The stars Alnitak, Alnitam, and Mintaka make up the "belt" of, for the point, what constellation that is named for a hunter in Greek mythology?

Orion

Locations such as Haua Fteah and Atapuerca contained stone tools from this species' Mousterian culture. This species, which interbred with the closely related Denisovan group, became extinct roughly 30,000 years ago. For the point, name these hominids with heavy brows, named for the German valley where their remains were discovered.

Neanderthals (accept Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)

In a controversy surrounding this concept, a hash code was sent between the opponents, which, when deciphered, contained the mention of fluxions. The publishing of the work Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis furthered one man's claim to invent this subject often described as the "study of infinitesimals." For the point, name this subject that was invented independently by Gottfried Leibnitz and Isaac Newton.

Calculus (prompt on "fluxions" before mentioned)

Many ammonoids and conodonts went extinct during this period's Carnian pluvial episode. During this period, Pangaea began to separate into the continents of Laurasia and Gondwana. This period, which followed the mass extinction of trilobites in the "Great Dying," gave rise to the archosaurs. The Permian era preceded, for the point, what first geologic period in the Mesozoic Era, named for a set of three distinct rock layers?

Triassic Period

It's not luminosity, but this quantity is commonly calculated using the Faber-Jackson relation. Type 1a supernovae lie near the top of a namesake "ladder" that contains methods for determining this quantity. Standard candles are used to compute this quantity. Large values for this quantity are often expressed in parsecs. For the point, name this quantity, which for the Sun equals one astronomical unit.

Distance (from Earth)

Napoleonic-era surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey mandated that ships use this substance to sterilize when they did not have access to alcohol. The first known ingredients list for this substance can be found in the Wujing Zongyao of the Song Dynasty, and this substance was used to light fireworks prior to its military application. For the point, name this substance used to propel bullets in early firearms.

Gunpowder (accept Black Powder)

Some of these objects are engineered at the Renton and Everett factories, where parts like the fuselage and stabilizer are fused together with bolts. Bernoulli's principle explains how lift is generated when air passes over a certain part of these objects. It's not a helicopter, but for the point, name these class of vehicles that can fly, examples of which include the Airbus A380 and Boeing 787.

airplanes (or aeroplane; accept jet; or jetplane)

The only stand-alone group of Hilbert axioms concerns an axiom about this property, which is equivalent to Playfair's axiom. Two vectors that have a cross product of zero have this property. Euclid's fifth postulate is named for this property and implies that all angles of a rectangle are right angles. Two lines with this property have the same slope. For the point, name this property of two lines in the same plane that will never intersect.

Parallel (accept Parallel Postulate)

Kupffer cells break down red blood cells in this organ, and most of the blood supply of this organ is delivered by the portal vein. This organ is the primary site of the urea cycle and gluconeogenesis. Late-stage scarring of this organ is termed cirrhosis, while its inflammation is known as hepatitis. For the point, name this digestive organ that detoxifies blood and produces bile.

Liver

If the polar angle is this quantity, the resulting point will be on the negative side of the x-axis. The Madhava-Leibniz series approaches this number, and it's not e, but this was the first number proven to be transcendental. This number times four-thirds times the radius cubed gives the volume of a sphere. For the point, give this term for the ratio between a circle's circumference and its diameter, approximately 3.14.

Pi (accept Archimedes' Constant; accept 3.14 before mentioned)

This particle's interaction with other elementary particles can be observed through Raman scattering. In the Standard Model, this hadron is categorized as having electroweak interactions, and this particle is unified with the W and Z gauge bosons. For the point, name these massless elementary particles symbolized by the Greek letter gamma, the quanta of the electromagnetic field, and more specifically light.

Photons

The malloc function in C and C++ allocates this resource, and Java uses automatic garbage collection to reclaim this resource, which is stored near the main processor in a CPU cache. The non-volatile type of this resource retains data even without a power source. For the point, name this computer resource used to store information that comes in a random access type abbreviated RAM.

Memory (accept Random Access Memory; accept RAM; accept Virtual Memory; accept Storage; prompt on "data")

This quantity's phase type is described as the rate at which a wave propagates in a medium. The time derivative of this quantity is acceleration, and the unit of this quantity is usually expressed in meters per second. Displacement divided by time equals, for the point, what vector quantity that consists of both speed and direction, denoted as "v"?

Velocity (accept Phase Velocity; accept v before mentioned; prompt on “Speed”)

A mutation in one species of these animals, the Stickleback, has allowed them to adapt between different habitats. The majority of these animals belong to the class Actinopterygii. Respiration in these animals occurs through a closed-loop circulatory system and gills. For the point, name these aquatic animals, examples of which include lampreys, sharks, and piranhas.

Fish (accept Stickleback Fish; accept Catfish; prompt on "Shark" before mentioned)

This plant commonly grows alongside, and is often mistaken for, the Virginia creeper. This plant contains a resin called urushiol that induces a form of contact dermatitis, and "black-spot" deposits caused by this plant can be treated with topical corticosteroids. The phrase "Leaves of three, let it be" applies to, for the point, what plant of the genus Toxicodendron that is closely related to other species named "oak" and "sumac", whose sap causes an itchy rash?

Poison Ivy (accept Poison Oak; accept Poison Sumac; accept Toxicodendron radicans)

A hyperfine transition in this element leads to a form of radiation called the 21-centimeter line. This element's alpha emission line is dark red as part of its Balmer series. This element makes up 75 percent of the baryonic mass of the universe. This element is fused by main sequence stars to produce helium. For the point, name this lightest and most abundant element in the universe.

Hydrogen

These objects are harvested to make beer by the Quidi Vidi Brewing Company in Newfoundland. The largest current one of these objects was first detected in the Weddell Sea and the largest one on record, B-15, broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf in March, 2000. Mostly found near Greenland and Antarctica is, for the point, what type of floating, frozen object that sunk the RMS Titanic?

Iceberg (accept Iceberg B-15)

These types of organisms are classified by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which is also responsible for their protection. The IUCN's Red List lists the status of these creatures, and they're broken down into categories with abbreviations such as VU or CR. The gray wolf and the humpback whale are examples of, for the point, what type of animals that are classified as vulnerable, threatened, and near-extinct?

Endangered Species (accept clear knowledge equivalents; accept statuses such as Vulnerable or Threatened before mentioned)

Structures on this entity include the smooth Borealis basin. The largest mountain in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is on this planet. A recent expedition to this planet to search for signs of life in 2021 discovered the presence of hidden water in a canyon. The Opportunity and Curiosity rovers landed on, for the point, what planet named for the Roman god of war, the fourth planet from the sun?

Mars

Sulfonylureas are a class of organic compounds used to treat this disease, which is caused by the loss of beta cells in some patients. One form of this disease involves the inability of cells to respond to insulin, and is often caused by a lack of physical activity or poor diet. For the point, name this disease characterized by high blood sugar levels that can be classified into Type 1 and Type 2 varieties.

Diabetes Mellitus (accept Type 1 Diabetes; accept Type 2 Diabetes)

This organ is made up of three layers, with its spaces being filled with vitreous and aqueous humor. Diseases that affect this organ include conjunctivitis and cataracts, and it contains specialized photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. The lens, cornea, and iris are structures that are part of, for the point, what organ of the visual system that is responsible for helping us see?

eyes (accept eyeballs)

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published a comprehensive book describing this property, wherein he stated this property is formed from the interplay of darkness and light. Thomas Young proposed a trichromatic theory postulating that this property can be replicated by a combination of three lights. For the point, name this visual property derived from the spectrum of light's interaction with the eye.

Color

By firing a gun into the ballistic variety of these devices, the momentum of a bullet can be found. A classical example of a chaotic system is the double variety of these devices. The ideal form of these devices consists of a weighted bob at the end of a massless rod. Swinging to keep time in grandfather clocks, for the point, what are these devices?

Pendulums (accept Double pendulum)

The influence of this quantity causes the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect. The existence of an increasing variety of this quantity, known as its phantom type, would cause the "big rip" end of the universe. Driving the expansion of the universe and making up the bulk of the universe's mass-energy , for the point, what is this unobserved quantity which is more than twice as prevalent as dark matter?

Dark energy (do not accept or prompt on "dark matter")

Faraday's constant equals the charge of an electron times this quantity, which is also multiplied by Boltzmann's constant to give the ideal gas constant. This constant equals the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12, which is approximately 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd power. Defining the number of particles in a mole , for the point, what is this constant which is named for an Italian scientist?

Avogadro's number (or Avogadro's constant)

Common systems of a disorder caused by this hormone include crowded teeth and enlarged hands and feet. Excessive levels of this hormone can cause pituitary tumors and acromegaly. Deficiencies of this hormone are the primary cause of human dwarfism. A peptide hormone responsible for stimulating cell division, for the point, what is this common performance-enhancing drug?

Human Growth Hormone (or HGH; accept Somatropin or Somatotropin)

This rock, the intrusive counterpart of rhyolite, is the most common material found in Bornhardts. This rock forms its namesake domes at landmarks such as Sugarloaf Mountain and Yosemite's Half Dome. This rock contains crystals of feldspar and quartz and predominantly makes up the continental crust. A coarse-grained igneous rock, for the point, what is this material commonly used to make high end countertops?

Granite

Along with ambient visible light, this is the primary radiation converted into electrons in night vision goggles. This radiation names a form of spectroscopy that measures a molecule's vibrational transition. This radiation has wavelengths from 700 millimeters to 1 centimeter. Including wavelengths longer than that of visible light, for the point, what is this radiation range?

Infrared light (or IR)

This scientist's paper "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" led to the introduction of the laws of segregation and independent assortment. This scientist's studies of Pisum sativum led him to coin the terms "dominant" and "recessive." A 19th century friar, for the point, who was this man who studied inheritance among pea plants?

Gregor Johann Mendel

Common causes of these events, the largest of which occurred in Washington in 1980, include increases in pore pressure and hydrostatic pressure in surface cracks. The field of predicting these events is called slope stability analysis. These events, which are a form of mass wasting, are often preceded by heavy rains destabilizing the surface layer. For the point, name these potentially catastrophic movements of rock and sediment down a slope.

Mudslides (accept Landslides; accept Mudflows; accept Rockslides; accept Flow Slides; prompt on "mass wasting" before mentioned)

Up-regulation of cytochrome P450 conveys resistance to this organo-chlorine compound, which prevents sodium channels from closing. This chemical was implicated in declining peregrine falcon and bald eagle populations as it accumulated in their prey. Responsible for thinning eggshells, for the point, what is this pesticide that was highlighted in Rachel Carson's Silent Spring?

DDT (or Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

Each atom in this material shares three sp2 hybridized orbitals, making it the strongest of all currently known materials. Andre Geim employed micromechanical exfoliation and a silicon wafer to isolate layers of this material using Scotch tape and the primary component of pencil lead. Arranged in a single-layered hexagonal lattice, for the point, what is this 2D carbon allotrope?

Graphene (do not accept or prompt on "graphite")

This law is extended to the enthalpy of a chemical reaction by Hess's law. This law, which is often notated as "delta U equals Q minus W," is equivalent to stating that first kind perpetual motion machines are impossible. Stating that the total amount of mass-energy in a system is constant, for the point, what is this law?

First Law of Thermodynamics (prompt on "Conservation of Energy"; prompt on partial answers)

One controversial method for carrying out this task involves depositing a certain substance into a subduction zone. The primary method for carrying out this task is called deep geological repository. For the point, identify this task of safely dealing with the waste products of fusion and fission.

Radioactive waste disposal (accept any answer indicating the disposal, storage, or management of waste products from nuclear power plants or weapons)

This value represents the Turing degree of the partial computable functions. This value represents the bottom element of a bound lattice and is the cardinality of the empty set. Creating an undefined expression as the denominator of a fraction, for the point, what is this number?

Zero (accept Naught or Nil)

Lenski et al.'s ongoing evolution experiment with this species observed them spontaneously developing the ability to metabolize citrate. In humans, beneficial strains of this species are involved in producing vitamin K in the intestines. A common model organism, for the point, what is this rod-shaped, gram negative gut bacteria?

E. coli (or Escherichia coli)

This location is the origin of toxic dust storms that spread tuberculosis and cause cancer in former fishing towns such as Mo'ynoq. Desertification of this location was driven by agricultural diversion of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers. Formerly located on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, for the point, what is this now mostly dried up Central Asian lake?

Aral Seabed (or Aral Sea; accept Aralkum Desert)

This field was founded and developed by the father-son pair D.D. and B.J. Palmer. This field was founded on pseudo-scientific claims of the existence of lesions not visible on X-rays, termed vertebral subluxations. For the point, name this field of alternative medicine based around performing spinal "alignments."

Chiropractic (accept word forms like Chiropractor)

Scientists from this country include the author of Systema Naturae. A village in this country is the namesake of four chemical elements, including Ytterbium. The home country of Svante Arrhenius and Arvid Carlsson, for the point, what is this country in which the presentation ceremonies of all three science Nobel Prizes are held?

Kingdom of Sweden (or Konungariket Sverige)

This scientist described cultural features that are passed down in a way analogous to genes with the coined term "meme." This scientist popularized the gene-centered view of evolution in books such as River Out of Eden and The Selfish Gene. Known for his criticisms of religion in his book The God Delusion, for the point, who is this British evolutionary biologist?

Richard Dawkins

This organ can be affected by cholesterolosis, which is also known as "strawberry". This organ can be removed when it accumulates painful amounts of calcium salts and cholesterol, forming this organ's namesake stones. For the point, name this organ that receives and stores bile from the liver.

Gallbladder (accept Cholecyst; prompt on “gallstone”)

Bartlett's test, a type of F-test, compares two values for this quantity, which is also analyzed by a set of models developed by Ronald Fisher called ANOVA. The parameter lambda for a Poisson distribution symbolizes both the expected value and this quantity, which is the square of the standard deviation. For the point, name this measure of how spread out a data set is.

Variance (accept Analysis of variance)

This scientist controversially refused to give her subjects numbers, instead opting for names like "Goliath." This scientist observed one animal population using twigs and grass to "fish" for termites. This scientist observed a nonhuman "war" between the Kasakela and Kahama communities of Gombe National Park. Best known for studying Tanzanian chimpanzees, for the point, who is this English anthropologist and primatologist?

Jane Goodall (or Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall; or Baroness Jane van Lawick-Goodall)

Since 2019, Huawei has been banned from implementing this technology in the U.S. due to espionage claims. Protestors in the UK who believed this technology was responsible for Covid-19 set fire to cell towers. The Samsung Galaxy S20 was the first smartphone compatible with this technology. For the point, name this latest broadband cellular standard.

5G NR (or 5G New Radio]

As part of Project Nekton, this feature was explored by the Auguste Piccard designed Trieste vessel. One portion of this feature was explored by the Kaiko and Nereus unmanned submarines. This feature's southern end contains its deepest point, the Challenger Deep. Located near an American-controlled Pacific island group, for the point, what is this deepest point in the ocean?

Mariana Trench (or Marianas Trench; accept Challenger Deep before mentioned)

These data structures connect all vertices of a graph with minimum edge weights. The red-black variety of this data structure is self-balancing, differentiating it from the binary search variety, and the first node of this structure is known as the root node. With terminal nodes referred to as leaf nodes rather than branches, for the point, what is this type of data structure?

Tree (accept Binary Search Tree before mentioned; accept Binary tree; prompt on "graph" before mentioned)

The most common methods for detecting these objects include the radial velocity method and the transit method. When found in the habitable zone, these objects are said to be in the "goldilocks" zone. Examples of these objects include super-Earths and hot Jupiters. For the point, name these rocky or gaseous bodies that orbit stars other than our Sun.

Exoplanets (accept any answer indicating extrasolar planets; accept answers such as planets outside our solar system; prompt on "planet"s)

This man's final book was a discourse on the study of motion and the study of materials titled Two New Sciences. The publication of this man's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems led to him being condemned by the inquisition for his heliocentrism. For the point, name this scientist who observed a group of namesake moons of Jupiter.

Galileo Galilei (or Galileo Galilei)

Members of this bacterial genus are classified based on their ability to lyse blood cells in the Lancefield grouping. Infection by a member of this genus can cause rheumatic fever if left untreated. Scarlet fever is caused by the pyogenes species of this genus, which leaves a white exudate on the tonsils in an infection commonly detected by throat culture. For the points, name this genus of spherical bacteria that cause a namesake sore throat.

Streptococcus (accept Streptococcus pyogenes; accept strep throat)

These structures secrete HIF-1 and VEGF to induce angiogenesis of a "leaky vasculature", and its surrounding microenvironment is commonly acidic due to the Warburg effect. "Caretaker", "gatekeeper", and "landscaper" are the three categories of genes named for "suppressing" these structures which act in opposition to oncogenes. Proliferating through blood vessels during metastasis, these are, for the points, what masses of cancer cells that are classified as either benign or malignant?

Tumors (accept Cancer Cells; accept Neoplasms; accept Tumor Suppressor Genes)

Entities named for these molecules have a subtype called caveolae that are flask-shaped. Ceramides are an example of the "sphingo" type of these molecules. Microdomains enriched in cholesterol are "rafts" named for these nonpolar molecules. The cell membrane consists of a bilayer named for these hydrophobic molecules. The main components of living cells include proteins, carbohydrates, and for the points, what biomolecules synonymous with fats?

Lipid (accept Lipid raft or Sphingolipid; prompt on “fat” or “fatty acid”)

The dynamic of this structure is represented by the Singer-Nicolas model, which explains how smaller molecules can pass through this organelle without assistance through osmosis or diffusion. The fluid mosaic model is a representation of this organelle, which is present in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. For the points, name this organelle that surrounds the cytoplasm and protects the inner components of a cell from its environment?

Cell Membrane (or Plasma Membrane; or Cytoplasmic Membrane; accept Plasmalemma; do not prompt or accept "Cell Wall")

The dynamic of salt and freshwater in these locations can be demonstrated using the Ghyben-Herzberg equation. These areas come in confined and unconfined varieties, are surrounded by areas known as aquicludes, and are studied in the science of hydrogeology. For the points, identify these layers of permeable rock from which water wells extract groundwater.

Aquifers (accept confined aquifer; or unconfined aquifer)

This tissue is removed in a process called girdling. According to the pressure-flow hypothesis, this tissue performs photosynthate partitioning by translocating carbon solutes. This tissue consists mainly of companion cells and sieve tube elements, which come from the meristem. Sap is carried by, for the points, what vascular plant tissue that transports sugars and nutrients, as opposed to xylem?

Phloem (prompt on "Bark")

The greatest quantity of buildings made with this material can be found in the city of Ashgabat. This material comes in many forms, including Bianco Sevic and the Etowah form. A pure white type of this rock is formed from the transformation of the dolomite protolith. Formed from the metamorphism of limestone, this is, for the points, what rock often used in sculpture?

Marble (Editor's note: in geology, marble is specifically metamorphosed limestone, whereas this distinction is not always true in stonemasonry.)

These phenomena and the polar easterlies travel in the same direction, though the polar easterlies are farther north and south by at least 30 degrees latitude. These entities meet at the Intertropical Convergence Zone. These winds blow from east to west near the equator. For the points, identify these winds named for their role in allowing ships to cross the Atlantic with greater ease and facilitate commerce.

Trade Winds (prompt on "Easterlies")

The fork-lined method is a tactic used to solve problems presented in these diagrams. The ratio resulting from cases observing epistasis are an exception to one form of these diagrams which would normally constitute a 9:3:3:1 ratio. These diagrams also outline the codominance relationship between the alleles of A and B blood types. Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses are used to visualize, for the points, what diagrams that outline the allele interaction of two parents to predict the phenotypic outcomes of an offspring?

Punnett Squares

When this structure is cooled by advection, it becomes a thicker, low viscosity structure known as "Polish doughnuts." The turbulence this object has when orbiting is caused by a fluid instability known as magnetorotational instability, which happens when the angular velocity of fluid is destabilized by a weak magnetic field. Dust, gas, and particles make up, for the points, what flat elliptical structures made of debris that surround a gravitational source, such as black holes?

Accretion Disks (accept Circumstellar Disks)

This scientist proposed the parton model of hadrons and the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics. Constructs named for this scientist can be used to visualize scattering processes. This scientist's Lectures on Physics is one of the most popular science books ever written. For the points, name this Caltech physicist whose namesake "diagrams" represent the motion of particles.

Richard Feynman (accept Feynman Diagrams)

Variations of these molecules include d5SICS and dNaM, which feature aromatic rings rather than purine rings. These molecules participate in cell signaling to create cyclic guanosine monosphate and cyclic adenosine monosphate. Three subunits exist within these molecules, including a five-carbon sugar and guanine, adenine, cytosine, or thymine. For the points, name these organic molecules, consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate, found in DNA and RNA.

Nucleotides (accept 5-Nucleotides)

Eigenvalues can be found by performing this operation on the original matrix minus lambda times the identity and setting the result equal to zero. This operation on a matrix is zero if and only if the matrix is noninvertible, and taking a cross product is equivalent to performing this operation on a 3 by 3 matrix. For the points, identify this operation, which for a 2 by 2 matrix equals a times d minus b times c.

Determinant

A spot found in a crater on Mars was dedicated to this figure during the Mars Exploration Rover mission in 2005. It was revealed in 2002 that this explorer died from overheating due to the failure of her spacecraft's central R-7 sustainer, although it was first reported that this cosmonaut's death was caused by oxygen depletion. Flying into space aboard Sputnik 2, this is, for the points, what Soviet cosmonaut who became the first animal to orbit Earth, also referred to as "Muttnik"?

Laika (prompt on “Muttnik” before mentioned)

This body was termed the "little cloud" in 905 by Persian astronomer Al-Sufi. This object was the main focus of the Shapley-Curtis debate, which argued whether this object was an "island universe." This body is designated 31 in the Messier catalog, and it is predicted to collide with the Milky Way in about 4.5 billion years. For the points, name this closest galaxy to the Milky Way, named after the daughter of Cassiopeia.

Andromeda galaxy

The JTWC classifies these objects as a 'super' variant if they reach the equivalent of a Category 4 for a different kind of storm on the Saffir-Simpson scale. The name for these phenomena comes from Portuguese and Chinese, and these storms affect areas like Japan and Hong Kong. For the points, name these types of cyclones that are different from hurricanes and occur typically in the northwest and southwest Pacific and the Indian Ocean.

Typhoon (prompt on "cyclone"; do not accept or prompt on "Hurricane")

This many bonding pairs of electrons are found in molecules with a seesaw geometry. This is the atomic number of the lightest element in emerald. One molecule of hydrogen peroxide contains this many total atoms. Methane contains this many hydrogen atoms. For the points, how many bonds can carbon form, which is also its number of valence electrons?

Four

A chemist from this country discovered a way of predicting reaction rates based on temperature and wrote an early acid-base definition. This country's village of Ytterby was where the elements of yttrium, ytterbium, erbium, and terbium were discovered. A scientist from this country invented the smokeless powder Ballistite, as well as dynamite. Svante Arrhenius was from, for the points, what country, whose native Alfred Nobel names a set of annual prizes?

Sweden (or Sverige; accept Kingdom of Sweden; or Konungariket Sverige)

This company's TDI technology creates more power while disbursing less fuel and producing fewer emissions. This company lost half its board after the CARB denied a proposed fix for vehicles with 2.0 liter engines. CEO Mark Winterkorn resigned from this company after certain vehicles produced 40 times more nitrogen oxide than during emissions testing. For the points, name this German car company that produced the Beetle.

Volkswagen (accept VW; accept Volkswagen Beetle)

Reacting this compound with copper oxide forms a bright blue salt, and a stock 98% solution of this compound has a molarity of 18.4. The 100% pure version of this substance has a Hammett function of negative twelve, and was known as oil of vitriol. This substance is formed from a vanadium oxide catalyst in the contact process. For the points, name this strong acid with formula H2SO4.

Sulfuric Acid (accept H2SO4 before mentioned; prompt on "Oil of Vitriol" before mentioned)

One type of these entities can be iteratively solved using Runge-Kutta methods. Guessing solutions composed of exponential functions or using Euler's method are simple methods for explicitly solving the ordinary type of these entities. Euler and Lagrange name a system for these equations, and a first step in dealing with these equations is to employ separation of variables. For the points, what type of equations contain a variable and its derivatives?

Differential Equations (accept Ordinary Differential Equation; or ODE; prompt on “Derivative”)

Stephen Kleene names a type of this symbol that returns a set of strings closed under concatenation. A forward slash and this symbol are used to delimit block comments in JavaScript and CSS. In languages like C++, this symbol is used to de-reference a pointer variable. This symbol denotes required fields in web forms written in HTML. For the points, name this computer programming symbol that also typically represents multiplication.

asterisk (or star; accept Kleene star)

In fluorescence microscopy, this organelle is commonly stained with the dye Hoechst 33342 when imaging cells or tissues. A structure within this organelle, the karyolymph, is noted for "sap"-like substance, while another structure in this organelle, continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, is responsible for the synthesis of ribosomes. Transcription occurs in this organelle, only found in eukaryotes. For the points, the "control center" of the cell is what organelle where where DNA is stored?

Atomic Nucleus (accept Nuclei)

One experiment testing this theory measured gamma rays emitted from an iron sample placed in a loudspeaker cone, and was performed by Pound and Rebka. The equivalence principle relates two forms of mass in this theory, which is also described by a set of field equations that contained the cosmological constant. Gravity is explained by the curvature of space-time in, for the points, what theory proposed by Einstein with a "special" counterpart?

general relativity (accept GR; prompt on "relativity"; do not accept or prompt on "special relativity")

A value named for this scientist is the time derivative of the scale factor divided by the scale factor. An instrument named for this scientist captured high-resolution images of Shoemaker-Levy 9's collision with Jupiter. This man found that an object's distance and redshift are directly proportional to each other. An astronomical constant is named for, for the points, what namesake of a space telescope?

Edwin Powell Hubble (accept Hubble Space Telescope)

This type of mixture forms at the Bancroft point, which falls within the valid ranges of the Antoine equation. Entrainers or a "pressure-swing" technique using multiple columns can be used to "break" these systems, which deviate from Raoult's law. A binary example of these systems is a 96% solution of ethanol in water. Also called "constant boiling point mixtures", these are, for the points, what solutions which cannot be separated by simple distillation?

Azeotropes (accept Constant Boiling Point Mixtures before mentioned; prompt on "Solutions"; prompt on "Non-ideal")

Alfven waves travelling within these substances are modelled using MHD theory, or magnetohydrodynamics. Magnetic fields are used to confine these substances in the shape of a torus within a tokamak. Solar flares are caused by magnetic reconnection within these substances because they make up the mass of the sun, as well as the discharge in lightning strikes. For the points, name these ionized gases considered the "fourth state of matter".

plasmas

A disorder that affects this organ includes a benign growth called the arytenoid granuloma, while another results in the swelling of this organ caused by a gelatinous fluid in a disorder called Reinke's edema. This organ, which is situated underneath the hyoid bone, becomes inflamed by a bacterial infection called croup, which also infects the bronchi and trachea. As the epiglottis opens, air enters, for the points, what organ in the neck that houses vocal cords, also known as the voice box?

Larynx (prompt on “Voice Box” before mentioned)

Early signs of the Fournier's type of this disease, also called necrotizing fasciitis, include pain and redness surrounding an infection point. Various treatments for this disease include maggot therapy, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, and debridement. Sepsis and amputation are complications of, for the points, what disease caused by a bacterial infection or inadequate blood supply that leads to tissue death, characterized by a change in skin color?

Gangrene (or Gangrenous Necrosis; accept Fournier’s Gangrene; accept Necrotizing Fasciitis before mentioned; prompt on answers along the lines of “tissue death” before mentioned)

Thales' theorem applies when this entity is the diameter of an excircle. It's not 1, but this entity is the numerator in the cosecant function. The length of this entity equals the square root of two times one of its smaller counterparts in a 45-45-90 triangle. This term is represented by the "c" in the Pythagorean theorem. For the points, give this term for the longest side of a right triangle.

Hypotenuse

The accumulation of this molecule by macrophages triggers the formation of foam cells seen in atherosclerosis. The Apolipo-protein B100 test measures the protein of the same name that is responsible for transporting this molecule throughout the body. HDL and LDL are considered the good and bad forms of, for the points, what important lipid in the body, a waxy substance found in blood that is essential to modulating the fluidity of the cell membrane?

Cholesterol (prompt on "HDL" or "LDL"; prompt on “Lipids”)

Milton's reagent is made by dissolving this element in nitric acid and diluting it with water. An outbreak of Minamata disease was caused by this metal, which forms alloys called amalgams and is found in its +2 state in the mineral cinnabar. One atmosphere is equal to the pressure of 760mm of this element that can be found in barometers and old glass thermometers. For the points, name this element with atomic number 80 and chemical symbol Hg that is liquid at room temperature.

mercury (accept "Hg" before mention)

The acid-fast type of these substances is used to identify tuberculosis in patient samples. Histologists often analyze biopsies using one of these substances containing both hematoxylin and eosin. One of these substances called crystal violet binds to the bacterial cell wall in a technique named for Gram. Cells can be visualized using, for the points, what substances that provide contrasting colors to a biological sample?

stains (or dyes; accept Gram stain; accept H&E stain; accept acid-fast stain)

This range's northern end is home to the Mountain Tapir, and this mountain range is the natural habitat of chinchillas and guinea pigs. Wild camelids found in this mountain range include the vicuña and guanaco. For the point, name this South American mountain range home to alpacas and llamas.

Andes Mountains (or Cordillera de los Andes; accept Andean Mountains; prompt on "Altiplano")

Some of these objects that orbit in the L4 and L6 points of Jupiter and Neptune are known as "Trojans." The largest and first-discovered example of these objects was predicted to exist by the debunked Bode's Law and is named Ceres. For the point, name these large, rocky masses that orbit the sun in a namesake "belt."

Asteroids (accept Asteroid belt; prompt on "minor planet" or "planetoid")

This compound form, which is divided into driving and driven varieties, is the most abundant and potent greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere. Suddenly exceeding the saturation point of this compound form in the atmosphere can lead to cloudburst precipitation. Concentration of this compound form is measured as humidity. For the point, name this greenhouse gas which condensates to form clouds.

Water Vapor (accept Aqueous vapor; prompt on "water"; prompt on "H20"; do not accept or prompt on "Steam")

The "Ecdy" is a plant derived form of this hormone recently discovered. Examples of these hormones include the androgen and estrogen sex hormones. Cholesterol is in a class of precursors for these hormones, which include stress hormones like cortisol. For the point, name these hormones, whose anabolic variety are illegally used to grow muscle mass.

Steroids (accept Anabolic steroids; prompt on "Corticoids")

A coil with a spark gap was used to observe this effect by Heinrich Hertz. Robert Millikan verified that this effect's output is related to frequency but not intensity. Albert Einstein's 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics was for his work on, for the point, what effect in which electrons are emitted under light?

Photoelectric Effect

There are this many Frenet-Serret formulas, which in total concern this many vectors. Apéry's constant is the value of the Riemann zeta function with this integer as an input. The area of a polygon with this many sides can be calculated using Heron's formula. For the point, what number is the degree of a cubic polynomial?

Three

These animals, which carry the Babesiosis disease, carry an infection diagnosed by a bullseye rash. These animals are the primary vector for human infections of Rickettsia rickettsii, the causative agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. For the point, name these parasitic arachnids, the primary carriers of Lyme disease.

Ticks (or Ixodida; accept American dog ticks; accept Rocky Mountain Wood Ticks; accept Brown dog ticks; accept Black-legged ticks; accept Bear ticks; accept Deer ticks; prompt on "arachnids" before mentioned)

The citrate of this element can be used to prevent kidney stones and is used as a laxative to prepare for colonoscopies. Calcined dolomite can be used to purify this element. This element's sulfate is often used for anti-inflammatory soaks and is called epsom salt. In a flame test, bright white light is emitted by, for the point, what alkali earth metal with number 12.

Magnesium (accept Mg; accept Magnesium citrate)

This man died along with Colonel Vladimir Seryogin while piloting an experimental MiG-15 aircraft near the town of Novosyolovo. During his most significant mission, this man allegedly said, "I don't see any God up here." The Vostok I was piloted by, for the point, what Soviet cosmonaut, the first human to reach space?

Yuri Gagarin

These organisms were the first to have their entire genome sequenced. These organisms include Candida albicans and members of the genus Saccharomyces, which can release carbon dioxide and ethanol during fermentation. For the point, name these single-celled fungi used during beer and bread making.

Yeasts (accept Saccharomyces before mentioned; accept Saccharomyces cerevisiae; prompt on "fungi")

These substances are confined with magnetic fields in a tokamak. As in electrolyte solutions, the range of a particle's electrostatic effect in this state is given as the Debye length. Nuclear fusion is only possible if matter is in this state. For the point, name this fourth state of matter, a collection of highly energized gas atoms found in stars.

Plasma

These objects begin to form when supercooled water comes into contact with dust nucleation sites. These objects form after repeated passing through updrafts in cumulonimbus clouds during severe storms. For the point, name these icy objects that fall as precipitation.

Hail stones

This inventor of the modern Celsius scale wrote a work which popularized a scientific racist theory of classifying humans into four groups based on skin tone and alleged personality. This scientist's Systema Naturae is credited with standardizing binomial nomenclature and modern taxonomy. For the point, name this taxonomist who invented the modern Latin naming convention for organisms.

Carl Linnaeus (or Carl von Linné; or Carolus Linnæus; prompt on “Linnaean taxonomy” or “Linnaean system”)

Particles that can hypothetically exceed this quantity in a vacuum are known as tachyons. Mass energy equivalence is established by a formula that sets energy equal to mass times this quantity squared. Represented as "c" in Einstein's formula "e equals mc squared," for the point, what is this rate at which photons move?

Speed of Light (or Lightspeed; prompt on "c")

One of these phenomena caused by lateral neural inhibition is named for Ernst Mach. Many of these phenomena originate from a confused figure-ground distinction. The autokinetic effect is one of these phenomena that suggests movement. For the point, name these phenomena, which trick the brain into processing visual data incorrectly.

Optical illusions (accept Visual illusions)

This substance is composed of equal parts dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and trichlorophenoxyacetic acid. The first use of this substance occurred during the Malaysian Emergency. A part of the larger class of "Rainbow Herbicides," for the point, what is this defoliant used to clear out forests during the Vietnam War?

Agent Orange (Prompt on “Rainbow Herbicides” before mentioned)

This region is home to formations such as black and white smokers. Cold seeps along this region can result in the formation of brine pools. Organisms that live near this region are collectively known as benthos, which often cluster around hydrothermal vents. For the point, name this rocky region at the bottom of the ocean.

Sea floor (or Ocean floor; accept Bed in place of Floor; accept Bottom in place of Floor before mentioned)

This molecule's receptors are activated by a class of hallucinogenic drugs that includes psilocin and LSD. When prepared for gastrointestinal use, this molecule is synthesized and secreted by enterochromaffin cells, which synthesize it from tryptophan. Lexapro, Zoloft, and Prozac are name brand examples, for the point, what appetite and mood-regulating neurotransmitter?

Serotonin [[seh-roh-TOH-nin]] (accept 5-hydroxytryptamine; or 5-HT)

The transpose of a matrix with this property always equals its inverse. A triangle's circumcenter lies at the intersection of lines named for this property, which is also possessed by two vectors whose dot product equals zero. Two lines with opposite reciprocal slopes have this relative property. For the point, name this property of lines that meet at 90 degree angles.

Perpendicularity (accept Orthogonality; accept Normal; accept Orthonormal; accept Right angles or 90 degree angles before mentioned; prompt on "bisector" or "bisecting")

Members of this phylum known as the deuterostomes are known for their separate mouths and anuses. Members of this phylum possess either pharyngeal pouches or pharyngeal slits while in their embryonic state. For the point, name this animal phylum named for possessing a namesake cartilage tube or backbone.

Chordata (or Chordates)

The Faber-Jackson equation relates the stellar velocity dispersion of these entities to their luminosity, and Hubble's tuning fork diagram is used to classify these entities. In approximately four billion years, two of these will collide, creating an entity named "Milkomeda". Coming in irregular, spiral, and elliptical varieties, for the point, what are these large collections of dust, dark matter, and stars?

Galaxy (accept Galaxies; accept Milkomeda galaxy or Milkdromeda galaxy; accept Andromeda galaxy; accept Irregular, Spiral, or Elliptical galaxy)

Studies of these systems introduced Strahler numbers for describing branch order. Riparian zones form buffer areas around these systems. Cutting off sections of these bodies of water forms oxbow lakes. For the point, name these bodies of water that flow into the sea at deltas.

Rivers (accept more narrow synonyms such as Stream, Brook, Creek, or Rivulet)

The transom supports of these devices connect to the sterndrive. These devices are divided into inboard and outboard motor varieties based on the placement of their propeller. These devices can be steered by redirecting fluid with a rudder. For the point, name these vehicles, examples of which include canoes and kayaks.

Boat (or Ship; accept Motor Boat before "canoe" is mentioned)

These entities can be described using only mass, angular momentum, and charge, rendering them "hairless." An object approaching one of these entities will become increasingly redshifted and eventually stop moving, and the boundary of that occurrence with these objects is known as the event horizon. For the point, name these gravitational singularities from which even light cannot escape.

Black holes

Extended use of this technology without rest can lead to a repetitive motion injury commonly known as "gorilla arm." Mobile devices often employ haptics to improve user experience with this technology. Pinches and multi-finger swipes are common gestures used with this technology. For the point, name this technology used to give inputs when using smartphones.

Touch screen (accept descriptive answers involving screens which are operated by touch)

A grip-assisting extension of this animal's sesamoid bone was used as an example of a spandrel in a Stephen Jay Gould essay titled for this animal's "thumb." Due to their lack of interest in mating in captivity, a method of artificial insemination using liquid nitrogen was developed. For the point, name these black and white bamboo-eating bears from China.

Giant Pandas (or Ailuropoda melanoleuca; accept Panda bears)

It's not the pancreas, but this organ's secretion of fluids can be regulated by secretin. Intrinsic factor is produced by parietal cells in this organ, which also produces hydrochloric acid. Peristalsis moves matter through this organ after it is received by the esophagus. For the points, name this digestive organ in which food is broken down by acid and enzymes following chewing.

Stomach

The development of these structures can be represented with the ABC model. They're not fruits, but the presence of these structures differentiate angiosperms from gymnosperms. Carpels and sepals are components of these structures. Movement of pollen from the anther to the stigma of these structures causes pollination. For the points, name these reproductive organs of plants which contain petals.

Flowers (accept Blooms; accept Blossoms; prompt on "petal")

Transfection is a technique used to introduce nucleic acids into these structures, which were first discovered by Robert Hooke while looking under a microscope. One form of these structures is responsible for conducting impulses in the nervous system, while another helps transport oxygen around the body. These units are composed of cytoplasm enclosed in a namesake membrane. For the points, name this smallest unit of biological life.

cells (accept neurons; or nerve cell; accept red blood cells; accept cell membrane)

This quantity that appears in the Fresnel number can be computed using the formula "h over mc". Radio waves are the weakest form of electromagnetic radiation because they have the highest value for this quantity, which is measured by the distance between adjacent troughs. On a visible light spectrum, the color green has a value ranging between 495 to 570 nanometers for, for the points, what quantity that describes the horizontal distance between two peaks of a wave, symbolized lambda?

Wavelength (accept Compton Wavelength; prompt of "Lambda" before mentioned)

Planck's constant over this quantity is equal to the de Broglie wavelength of a particle. The net change in this quantity is equal to impulse, while the rate of change of this quantity is equal to force. This quantity, whose SI unit is equivalent to the newton-second, changes equally to the net force acting on it, according to Newton's Second Law of Motion. For the points, what quantity is equal to mass times velocity, denoted as the letter "p"?

Momentum (accept P before mentioned; accept Linear Momentum; accept Angular Momentum; accept Translational Momentum)

This quantity of a chemical element is correlated with the frequency of X-rays it emits by Moseley's law, and neutronium has a value of zero for this quantity. When a chemical element has an equal number of electrons to this quantity, it is electrically neutral. Denoted as the symbol "Z", this is, for the points, what property of a chemical element that equals the number of protons it has, which is one for hydrogen?

Atomic Number (accept Number of Protons before mentioned; prompt on "Z" before mentioned)

This molecule was first discovered by Frederich Miescher in 1869 while studying the composition of white blood cells. Photo 51 reveals information about the structure of this molecule that was first photographed by a student of Rosalind Franklin. Typically abbreviated using a three-letter term, this is, for the points, what genetic material for which James Watson and Francis Crick won the 1962 Nobel Prize after discovering its double-helix structure?

DNA (or Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The deadliest one of these events was prompted by the 1970 Ancash earthquake, and it became the second-deadliest landslide-related event in twentieth century South America. Slab types of these events occur by the collapse of a weak layer beneath a layer of tightly packed graupel. For the points, name this rapid flow of snow down a steep slope, such as a mountain.

Avalanche (prompt on "Snow Slide")

David Geffen was forced to open an access point to a Malibu beach named for this element, also nicknamed "Billionaire's Beach." A salt lake with this element's name in Patagonia contains the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere. Besides the elements that are gases at room temperature, this element is the universe's most abundant. For the points, name this element whose allotropes include graphite and diamond.

Carbon (or C; accept Element 6; accept Carbon Beach)

Paget's disease is a rare condition associated with this disease that causes eczema-like changes to the skin. Recent research suggests that Mucin and HER-2 are potential biomarkers for this disease that can be classified by its expression of progesterone and estrogen receptors. The mutation of the BRCA1 gene increases the risk for this disease, which can be treated through a mastectomy. Mammograms can help detect, for the points, what disease that is the most common form of cancer in women worldwide?

Breast Cancer (prompt on "Cancer")

This disease is diagnosed with a hemoglobin A1c test. Along with polycystic ovary syndrome, metformin is commonly prescribed as a treatment to this disease. The leading cause of blindness in young adults is this disease's retinopathy. One form of this disease occurs due to destruction of the Islets of Langerhans. For the point, name this disease caused due to insulin resistance or a lack of insulin production, which requires monitoring of blood sugar levels.

diabetes

Ozone can be used to split this functional group into carboxylic acids and ketones. No intermediate productions, like a similar functional group, form when these functional groups undergo halogenation. The German words Entgegen and Zusammen lend their names to the E and Z symbols used to label isomers of this functional group. The general formula of acyclic examples of these hydrocarbons have formula C--n, H--2n. The simplest example of these hydrocarbons is ethene. For the point, name this type of functional group consisting of a carbon carbon double bond.

alkenes [or

A horizontal approach to the most well known characteristic of this construct occurs along a path named for Henyey. That path for Henyey for this construct can be followed from a different track named for Hayashi. Delta Scuti and SX phoenicis occupy this construct's instability strip. Most data points on this plot are along what is referred to as the main sequence. This diagram typically uses temperature as the x--axis and luminosity as the y axis. For the point, name this color--magnitude diagram named for Danish and American astronomers used for stellar classification.

Hertzsprung--Russell Diagram

The equation "A" cosine squared of theta plus B cosine of theta plus C is used in this technique to determine the relation between dihedral torsion angles and the J coupling constant; that equation is the Karplus equation. TMS is used as a reference in this technique which has much larger chemical shifts for its Carbon--13 variant than the proton variant. A medical imaging technique that makes use of this method requires the patient to not have any metal implants due to the use of a giant magnet. For the point, name this technique which makes use of an external magnetic field to make nuclei readings.

nuclear magnetic

According to the continuum hypothesis, there is no set with cardinality between this set of numbers and the natural numbers. Dedekind cuts are used to construct this set of numbers whose uncountability was proved by Georg Cantor's diagonalization argument. This type of number between and is uncountably infinite. The union of irrational and rational numbers produces this set of numbers. For the point, name these non--complex numbers which do not contain an imaginary component.

real numbers

In the United States, types of this material can be identified by a resin identification number between one and seven. Leo Baekeland coined the term for this material and invented the first fully synthetic example of one, bakelite. Because it is likely an endocrine disruptor, the use of BPA as an additive to this material has been called into question. Examples of this material include polypropylene and polystyrene. For the point, name these highly malleable synthetic polymers, which make up water bottles and milk jugs.

plastics [prompt

This language handles input by grouping letters into hboxes which are then put into a vbox with the goal of minimizing badness between lines. Leslie Lamport designed an extension to this language with more user--friendly macros and packages. Donald Knuth designed this language to make beautiful textbooks and has said the X should be pronounced like a Scottish person pronounces "Loch." For the point, name this markup language whose extension shares its spelling with the name for natural raw rubber.

TeX [accept

None of these particles are formed during internal conversion while their emission is represented by down arrows on Jablonski diagrams. The equation for these bosons gave rise to the De Broglie hypothesis and is equal to Planck's constant over wavelength. These particles are represented by curvy lines on Feynman diagrams. Young's double slit experiment proved the wave nature of these particles. For the point, name this quantum particle that carries the electromagnetic force and mediates visible light.

photons

A gradient caused by this process is reversed by the hormone ADH. This process causes the swelling of a plant's central vacuole creating turgidity. In general, this process stabilizes solute concentrations, which can result in a cell becoming hyper--or hypotonic. Pressure is used to "reverse" this process in a desalination method. Water moves through a semipermeable membrane during, for the point, what diffusive process?

osmosis [or

A 50/50 mix of UDMH and NTO is a common hypergolic for these devices. The equation, delta--v equals effective exhaust velocity over the natural logarithm of initial total mass over final total mass, was developed from Newton's second law for these devices by Soviet engineer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. Oxidizers on board these devices allow for the creation of force despite the presence of a vacuum when these devices travel. That force produced by these devices can be calculated by the thrust equation. For the point, name these devices that help propel satellites into space

rocket engines

This program greenlighted AS--204 which ended when a fire caused the death of Ed White, Roger Chaffee, and Gus Grissom. A follow--up program to this one plans to use the Orion spacecraft to set up a station called Gateway. Michael Collins remained in the Command Module during the 11th mission in this program, which landed in the Sea of Tranquility. The follow up to this program is the Artemis program. For the point, name this program whose 11th mission sent Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong to the moon.

Apollo program

A white one of these substances forms in the result of a double replacement reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride. Double displacement reactions are classified as this type of reaction if the reaction occurs in an aqueous solution and one of the products is insoluble. Sometimes referred to as sediment, this solid component sits below the supernatant. Both referring to the process by which it forms and the solid substance itself, for the point, is what solid that forms out of solution?

precipitation [or

An effect named for this scientist is mathematically expressed as the magnetic flux density, times the path length times Verdet's (vayr--DAY) constant for the material equals the angle of rotation. Maxwell wrote a version of this scientist's law as the curl of electric field equal to the negative partial derivative of the magnetic field with respect to time, where the negative sign was precursored by Lenz's law. This scientist's law describes how an electromotive force is created by a change in flux. For the point, name this English scientist who names an electromagnetic law of induction.

Michael Faraday

A set of zipper--like proteins that help transport these structures include synaptobrevin and SNAP--25 and can be targeted by botulinum toxin. The fusion of these structures is mediated by SNARE proteins. Triskelion shaped proteins that form a cage like structure around these structures are called clathrin. MPRs are packed onto these structures so that they can be recycled after dropping off mannose--6--phosphate tagged proteins to the lysosome. These structures are similar to micelles and form during endocytosis. For the point, name these structures important in cell transport where a liquid or cytoplasm is surrounded by a lipid bilayer.

vesicles

A parameter of this name in thermodynamics is equal to one over Boltzmann's constant times temperature. Penicillin is part of a class of antibiotics named for lactam rings of this letter. Abnormal heart rhythms can be treated with a class of medications named --blockers. A form of decay named for this letter releases a particle equivalent to a Helium nucleus. For the point, name this letter that names a sheet motif common in protein folding alongside alpha--helices.

beta

The coherence length and penetration depth parameterize these materials in Ginzburg--Landau theory. This material is separated by an insulator at a Josephson junction, which gives rise to the Josephson effect where Cooper pairs are able to tunnel across the barrier. John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer developed the accurate BCS theory of this material. This material expels magnetic fields in the Meissner effect. For the point, name these materials that at low temperatures have no electrical resistance.

superconductors [accept

One over 2i times quantity e to the i z plus or minus e to the negative i z represents two of this class of functions in their complex form. Two members of this class of functions are used to approximate all periodic functions through the Fourier series. The complex numbers are related to the two most commonly employed of these functions by Euler's formula. The unit circle's radian measurement is commonly used instead of degrees when plugging into these functions to find the ratios of triangles. For the point, name this class of functions that includes the cosine and sine.

trigonometric functions

A plus three oxidation state salt derivative of one member of these elements is commonly used as an MRI contrast agent. Due to poor shielding of the 4f electrons of these elements, they experience a namesake contraction in atomic radius. Members of this group of elements include Europium, Samarium, and Ytterbium. This group of elements begins at and ends at 71. For the point, name this group of elements that sits below the transition metals on the periodic table above the actinides..

lanthanides [accept

This species's catabolite activator protein is controlled by cyclic AMP concentration levels which is useful for controlling its production of L--arabinose. François Jacob (Yah cohb) and Jacques Monod (Mo noh) received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on the Lac operon in this model organism. It isn't S. dysenteriae but Shiga--like toxins are produced by serotypes of this organism, including the enterohemorrhagic strain O157:H7. For the point, name this rod--shaped bacteria whose pathological strains in recent years have caused food poisoning with romaine lettuce.

E. Coli

Containers allow for this task to be done on the heap using pointers in a single operation. Bubble sort works by checking two items and performing this task if the larger item is more to the left in the series. The simplest algorithm for performing this task requires moving one of the two values into a temporary address while assigning the other to the previously assigned address. For the point, name this process of switching two items in memory.

swapping

The separation of primary and secondary components was a major breakthrough in the Teller--Ulam design of these devices. The two main designs of this device are the gun--type that impacts into a subcritical load or the implosion type where the outer shell collapses and compresses the core. Uranium--235 and plutonium--239 are radioactive materials used in these devices. For the point, name these explosive devices of war that operate via fission and fusion reactions.

nuclear weapons

The compressible pressure coefficient due to movement of this phenomenon can be calculated using the Prandtl--Glauert transformation which was predicted to reach a singularity at around meters per second. The Newton--Laplace equation can be used to calculate that speed of this phenomenon. The difference in frequency between two waves of this phenomenon can cause beats. An object travelling faster than the speed of this phenomenon surpasses Mach and is "supersonic." For the point, name these wave phenomena that are biologically perceived by ears.

sound waves

In this coordinate system, an equation's number of petals is 2k or k if k is an even or odd integer. In this coordinate system, the first parameter times sine of the second parameter results in a horizontal line, whereas swapping sine for cosine results in a vertical line. The first parameter in this coordinate system is obtained from Cartesian coordinates by calculating the square root of x squared plus y squared while the azimuth in this coordinate system can be obtained from arctan of y over x. For the point, name this 2D coordinate system that uses radius and theta coordinates.

polar coordinates

Kenneth Livak introduced a delta--delta--CT method for determining the number of cycles needed for fluorescence from dyes like SYBR fluorophores to be detectable. In this technique, an eight--tube strip contains the sample and a portion of the "master mix" of dNTPs, magnesium chloride and enzymes. Kary Mullis was recognized with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for inventing this technique whose real time variant makes use of TaqMan probes. Temperature is cycled in this technique during Denaturing, Annealing, and Extension phases, and primers are used to extend nucleotide sequences. For the point, name this technique of amplifying a DNA sample.

Polymerase Chain

NASA expects to discover thousands of these objects via the TESS mission launched in 2018. The first confirmed discovery of one of these objects was Pegasi 51b, which falls under a class of these objects within the frost line known as "Hot Jupiters." Before being retired in 2018, the Kepler space telescope discovered many of these objects by the transit method when they orbited in front of a bright star. If they exist in the habitable zone, these objects are potential sources for life. For the point, name these planets that circle stars other than our Sun.

extrasolar planets

Early sound detection apparati for submarines made use of either magnetostriction transducers or ultrasonic transducers made with materials that exhibit this effect. The discovery of this effect was first cited in a paper which described it as "Development by compression of polar electricity in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces"; that paper was written by Pierre and Jacques Curie in their experiments on crystals lacking inversion symmetry which exhibit this effect such as Quartz and Rochelle salts. For the point, name this phenomenon where mechanical stress causes the buildup of electric charge in a material.

piezoelectricity [or

While animal fats are an alternative to producing Fatty Acid Methyl Esters or FAME, transesterification of this class of compounds is usually the most common method to produce FAME. Glycerol ester of wood rosin is a potential alternative to a modification of this class of oils used to prevent citrus flavors from emulsifying that is still classified as "Generally Recognized as Safe" despite concerns of bromine toxicity. Crisco was the first shortening made by hydrogenating this class of oils. Biodiesel is any fuel made from reactions with this class of oils. For the point, name these oils derived from plants such as olive and soy beans.

vegetable oil

A stopcock is used to control the rate at which these devices function in the dropping variety of this lab equipment. The separatory variety of this lab equipment is used in liquid--liquid extraction. The Buchner variety allows for fast filtration with this piece of lab equipment. This simple piece of plastic, glass, or stainless steel lab equipment in wider scale operations typically has a channel of liquid that feeds into the wide end with filter paper placed near the narrow end. For the point, name this device which can aid in guiding liquid into a narrow opening of a container.

funnel

Fleischmann and Pons thought they had discovered cold fusion by using this process on heavy water over a palladium substrate. The Tafel equation can be used to calculate the overpotential of water when reacted over a platinum substrate. The Hall--Heroult process uses this method to extract aluminum from aluminum oxide.Water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen if this process is driven at the correct voltage. For the point, name this process of producing chemical reactions at cathodes and anodes by applying a direct current.

electrolysis

Given a probability density function f of x, this statistic for the distribution is equal to the integral from negative infinity to infinity of x times f of x d x. This statistic converges to the expected value of a distribution according to the law of large numbers. One Pythagorean type of this statistic can be obtained by multiplying all the numbers in a set together and taking the n--root where n is the total number of data points. Types of this statistic include geometric, harmonic, and arithmetic. For the point, name this statistic, a measure of the average from a set of numbers.

mean [before

As a means for taking measurements from this organ, Willem Einthoven invented a namesake Triangle that runs from the wrists to the left ankle. That breakthrough helped him win the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for a galvanometer instrument designed for this organ. The Frank--Starling law describes how increase in volume leads to an increase in stroke volume from this organ. A namesake cycle of this organ can be measured from two consecutive R peaks, which makes up the largest spike on a QRS complex measured from this organ on an ECG. This organ cycles between filling diastolic phases and contracting systolic phases. For the point, name this organ that serves as a pump circulating blood throughout the body.

heart

This material in its molten form is fed through an "isopipe" in a fusion process developed by the Corning company. In that industrial process, this material is then cut from a "mother sheet" to be fed into an ion--exchange process to form this material's sturdy "Gorilla" variety. Using random network theory, W.H. Zachariasen developed four empirical rules for this material. A layer of titanium dioxide added to this material creates a "self--cleaning" variety. The properties of polymers drastically change after undergoing a transition named for this material. These vitreous solids are often formed from the rapid quenching of molten material. Natural varieties of this material include obsidian. For the point, name this amorphous crystalline material that can be formed from the silica in sand.

glass

When photons from this specific phenomenon enter galactic clusters, they undergo inverse Compton scattering. The WMAP and COBE probes studied the anisotropies of this phenomenon, which was discovered at Bell Labs and has a temperature of about 2.7 Kelvin. Evidence for the Big Bang is given by, for the points, what black-body radiation that permeates the whole universe and has a frequency between radio and infrared?

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (or CMB; or CMBR; accept Relic Radiation; prompt on partial answers)

108 bones were found belonging to this specimen, making him the most complete skeleton of his species found to date. Blood poisoning caused by severe tooth decay and a lumbar disc herniation found in a 2013 study are possible theories concerning the death of this specimen, which was estimated to have occurred when he was around seven to eleven years old. Discovered by Kamoya Kimeu and Richard Leakey, this is, for the points, what specimen of the Homo ergaster species, named after a lake in Kenya?

Turkana Boy (or Nariokotome Boy; or KNM WT-15000)

The Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment identified the substance that was responsible for this process, which commonly involves the pUC19 plasmid and recovery S.O.C. medium. Two common ways of performing this technique include the chemical heat shock and electroporation methods. It's not transfection, but for the points, name this horizontal gene transfer technique used to introduce foreign DNA into bacterial or yeast cells.

bacterial transformation (accept genetic transformation; do not accept or prompt on "transfection" or "mutation")

Ecosystems that are rated 60 to 100 on the Trophic State Index are defined with an adjective named after this process, which indicate it having the highest amount of biological activity. Severe cases of this process may lead to a state of hypoxia, which coincides with the gradual increase in elements such as phosphorus and nitrogen in its ecosystems, such as in estuaries or lakes. An increase in phytoplankton productivity is primarily the cause of, for the points, what process which occurs when plant nutrients in bodies of water encourage algal blooms?

Eutrophication (or Hypereutrophication; accept Algal Blooms before mentioned)

This protein is transported to the nucleus by importin-9, and this protein is anchored by vinculin to the cell membrane. This protein comes in globular and filamentous types, and this protein, under the sliding filament theory, makes up thin filaments along with tropomyosin and troponin. In cell adhesion, cadherins link to, for the points, what protein which is the primary component of microfilaments and is paired with myosin to facilitate muscle contraction?

Actin (accept G-Actin; or F-Actin)

This substance is found in specialized capillaries called lacteals. Lipid particles called chylomicrons transport fats from the intestines to the body using this substance, which drains into the left subclavian vein from the thoracic duct. This clear to white substance consists mainly of interstitial fluid and cells such as T cells and B cells. For the points, name this fluid found in namesake nodes in the head and neck that swell during infection.

lymph (accept lymphatic fluid; accept chyle)

This concept is displayed on a tri-axis graph called the de Finetti diagram, in which a parabola represents its expected frequency. Deviations from this concept may be influenced by the founder effect and meiotic drive, and the formula illustrating this concept is "p-squared plus 2 pq plus q-squared equals one." Random mating and no mutations are assumptions made by, for the points, what doubly-eponymous principle, which states that allele and genotype frequencies are constant in every generation as long as no outer influences are present within a population?

Hardy-Weinberg Principle (or Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium)

The Venice System uses this quantity to classify bodies of water, whose global average is 35 parts per thousand. This quantity and temperature drive thermohaline flows, and this quantity increases from the tidal limit of a river to the mouth of an estuary. In comparision to freshwater, brackish water has a higher value of, for the points, what quantity that measures the concentration of sodium and chloride ions in water?

Salinity (accept Salt Concentration; accept descriptive answers like the amount of salt in water)

When constructed, the Yakutsk TV Tower was the tallest structure built on this surface, which can be found in patterns such as palsas and pingos. This material extended south to New Jersey during the last Ice Age. This surface, whose erosion in Siberia led scientists to worry about vast carbon dioxide releases into the air, is common in the tundra. For the points, name this type of ground that remains below the freezing point for two or more years.

Permafrost (prompt on descriptive answers; prompt on "ice" or "frost")

This man ran a museum in Monaco that is blamed for releasing the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia. Loël Guinness leased this man a vessel with a "false nose" that sank in Singapore in 1996, the year before his death. This man, who often wore a red cap, is featured in the documentary The Silent World. The Calypso was the research ship used by, for the points, what French oceanographer who co-invented a breathing device called the Aqua-lung?

Jacques Cousteau [[zhahk koo-STOH]] (or Jacques-Yves Cousteau)

A form of this event that glows red in the dark is called nuée ardente. A variation of this event occurred on Mount Unzen in Japan, killing Harry Glicken alongside Katia and Maurice Krafft. That type of variation occurs when this event is composed of more rock than gas. This natural disaster is often caused by fountain collapses, which prompted this type of event's destruction of Herculaneum. For the points, name this fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter, collectively known as tephra, that destroyed the ancient city of Pompeii.

Pyroclastic flow (or Pyroclastic density current or Pyroclastic cloud)

These molecules interfere with the Chapman cycle by forming halogen radicals under UV light, which has caused Antarctic levels of Dobson units to drop below 220. The Montreal Protocol phased out types of these molecules like Freon, which is found in aerosols and refrigerants. For the points, name these compounds which were banned for depleting ozone in the stratosphere, named for the two halogens they contain.

Chlorofluorocarbons (accept CFCs; or HCFCs; accept Halons; accept Freon before mentioned; prompt on "Greenhouse Gases")

The discovery that this entity is a supermassive compact object was the subject of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics. The non-alphanumeric character in this entity's name was attached because it was "exciting." This entity is near the constellations Scorpius and another constellation it shares a name with, which is named for an archer. For the points, name this supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way.

Sagittarius A* [["star"]] (prompt on “Sagittarius” or “Sagittarius A”, prompt on descriptions like “black hole at the center of the Milky Way” by asking “is known by what name?”)

According to Andrei Linde, this process in part occurs due to a "slow roll" parameter. This process, which was proposed by Alan Guth, explains the horizon, flatness, and magnetic monopole problems. This process took place 10-to-the-negative-36 seconds after the Big Bang. For the points, name this theory that proposes a brief period of rapid expansion of the early universe.

Cosmic inflation (accept cosmological inflation)

Eighty-six of these structures were published by Robert Wiedersheim in the book The Structure of Man: An Index to His Past History, in which he mistakenly included the pineal gland, since melatonin had not yet been discovered. Douglas Futuyma argued that these structures are evidence of evolution, and some examples of them include the eyes of cave fish and the pelvic bones of snakes and whales. The wisdom teeth and tailbone of humans are classic examples of, for the points, what "obsolete" parts of the body that no longer serve a purpose in its present form?

Vestigial Structures (or Vestigial Organs; accept Vestigiality; prompt on answers synonymous to “non-functioning body parts”)

The approximate distance to this location can be found by adding one to the object's orbital eccentricity and multiplying the solution by its semi-major axis. The date when this location is reached by the Earth is approximately fourteen days after the June solstice when solar radiation is at its lowest. For the points, name this point in a satellite's orbit where the body is furthest from the Sun.

Apogee (accept Aphelion; accept Apsis)

The middle layer of this structure houses Purkinje cells, and the first model to explicitly state this structure's anatomy and function was based on a "teaching signal" sent by a climbing fiber. Impairments to this region of the central nervous system can cause Huntington's disease, as well as several forms of ataxia. Located underneath the occipital and temporal lobes, this is, for the points, what region of the brain that is responsible for one's motor learning and maintenance of balance?

Cerebellum (accept Cerebellar Cortex; prompt on "Brain"; prompt on "Little Brain")

Under special relativity, this law is implied by the general form of the first law of thermodynamics and Albert Einstein's formula "E equals m c squared." With the laws of definite and multiple proportions, this law underlies the principles of stoichiometry, which is used to balance chemical reactions. Antoine Lavoisier discovered, for the points, what law that states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed?

Law of Conservation of Mass (or Law of Conservation of Matter)

In collaboration with Starling Burgess and Isamu Noguchi, this person designed and built prototypes of the Dymaxion Car. Biologists have drawn on this person's architectural designs to explain the icosahedral shape of many viruses. This man helped to popularize the concept of "Spaceship Earth" and established a field he called "synergetics." A carbon allotrope that comes in ball, tube, and onion varieties is named for this person. For the points, name this architect remembered for his geodesic domes.

Buckminster Fuller (or R(ichard) Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller; accept Buckminster Fullerine)

ITU-R 468 weighting and A-weighting are commonly used to measure a type of this phenomenon. The thermal excitation of electrons causes a type of this phenomenon known as its Johnson-Nyquist variety. A type of this phenomenon is given as the ratio of signal power to its power and adds error to electronic signals. A constant power spectral density defines the "white" type of, for the points, what unwanted disturbance of an electrical signal.

Noise (accept Johnson-Nyquist Noise; or Thermal Noise; accept White Noise)

This man listed 800 medical substances and outlined methods of "Special Pathology" in a book that summarized Galen's work titled The Canon of Medicine. A book by this man, which introduced the "floating man" theory, incorporates early psychology and chemistry to cure the ignorance of the soul, titled The Book of Healing. For the points, name this 11th-century Persian Islamic Golden Age polymath.

Avicenna (accept Ibn Sina)

The lack of this construct differentiates a pseudo-ring from a ring. For matrices, the multiplicative type of this construct consists of a square matrix with 1's on the main diagonal and 0's elsewhere. For addition on the real numbers, this construct equals 0, and for multiplication, it equals 1 except for the zero case. For the points, what construct for a binary operation does not change the element it acts on?

Identity (accept Multiplicative Identity; or Additive Identity)

These cells were essential in the research of Harald zur Hausen in linking human papillomavirus 18 with cervical cancer, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 2008. These cells were also essential in the development of the polio vaccine, as scientists found that the poliovirus was able to replicate in these cells. For the points, name these "immortal" cells used in medical research whose name derived from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks.

HeLa [[HEE-la]] Cells (accept Henrietta Lack Cells before mentioned)

During World War Two, this scientist developed vaccines for diseases such as sleeping sickness and dengue fever. This man suggested that a certain virus cultivated in human intestines before attacking the central nervous system, based on his observation of the bodies of polio victims. Developing a "live" vaccine that rivaled the "dead" vaccine developed by Jonas Salk, this is, for the points, what Polish-American scientist who developed the oral polio vaccine, effectively eradicating the disease?

Albert Sabin (or Albert Bruce Sabin)

This operation's epsilon-delta definition was first formulated by Cauchy. This operation can be evaluated by L'Hopital's rule. The formal definition of a derivative is this operation applied to a difference quotient. The two-sided type of this operation does not exist at jump discontinuities. For the points, name this operation of finding where a function "approaches" as an input goes toward a value.

Limit

The term for this computing technique was coined by David Michie in 1968. Related to caching, this technique is often used in compilers for functional programming languages, where a "call by name" strategy is employed. With the goal of "turning a function into something to be remembered," for the points, what is this computing technique that stores the results of function calls to be returned from a cache at a later time, also called tabling?

Memoization [["memo"-"EYE"-zay-shun]] (accept Tabling before mentioned; prompt on "Memo" or "Memorandum"; prompt on "Caching" before mentioned)

Tin hydride or PTOC thiol are used to calibrate clocks named for these species, and AIBN is heated to serve to initiate production of these species. A form of polymerization using these species experiences steps of initiation via homolytic cleavage, propagation, and termination. Mechanisms containing these species are drawn using fishhook arrows, and they are thwarted by antioxidants. For the points, name these chemical species with an unpaired electron.

Free Radicals (prompt on "radical")

This phenomenon was corroborated by the Vines-Matthew-Morley hypothesis, where a series of magnetic stripes were observed. Convection currents in the asthenosphere cause this phenomenon, which was first proposed by Harry Hess. Basaltic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges as a result of this process. For the points, name this process where new oceanic crust is formed as a result of older crust moving apart.

Seafloor spreading

A theorem named for this man states that the order of any element of a group divides the order of that group. This man names "multipliers" which are used to find local maxima and minima of a function under equality constraints. This mathematician names "points" in which the centrifugal force balances gravity. For the points, name this Italian-French mathematician known for his contributions to number theory.

Joseph-Louis Lagrange (accept Lagrange Multipliers; accept Lagrange Points)

In 2020, scientists witnessed a star undergoing this phenomenon, in what some astronomers call a tidal disruption event. The difference in acceleration between the head and feet of a human causes this effect, although it is theorized that humans may not experience this phenomenon in supermassive black holes since its tidal force is less than what is experienced on Earth. For the points, name this phenomenon that is caused by vertical stretching and horizontal compression, also called the noodle effect?

Spaghettification (accept Noodle Effect before mentioned)

The process of forming one of these substances is described by the COSMO model and the Born equation. The K-sp value quantifies an equilibrium observed in these substances. Molality is often used to measure the concentration of these substances, which can form a solid precipitate if they are supersaturated. For the points, name these homogeneous mixtures that consist of a solute dissolved in a solvent.

solution (accept solvation; prompt on "mixtures")

Certain organisms use organs called halteres to assist in this phenomenon. A behavior called WAIR, or inclined running, may explain the evolution of this phenomenon. Archaeopteryx was likely capable of this phenomenon, as was Quetzalcoatlus. This phenomenon is divided into unpowered and powered forms, and the only mammal to use this mode of locomotion are bats. For the points, name this behavior found in pterosaurs and birds.

Flight (or Flying; prompt on "throw[ing] yourself at the ground and miss[ing]")

Gerard de Lairesse was a congenital sufferer of this disease, symptoms of which include Hutchinson's teeth and saddle nose. John Charles Cutler orchestrated an unethical study of this disease on human test subjects in Guatemala, and he directed another study of this disease that led to the creation of the Office for Human Research Protections. Caused by Treponema pallidum and possibly the only major disease brought from the Americas to Europe is, for the points, what sexually-transmitted disease which the Tuskegee Study victims were left untreated for?

Syphilis

This region can be depicted with the three-cell model, which includes the Hadley Cells. This layer extends for eleven miles above sea level at the equator, ending at its "pause." Most of the Earth's weather occurs in this layer, which also has the majority of the atmosphere's mass. For the point, name this lowest layer of the atmosphere.

Troposphere (prompt on "tropopause")

The Davisson–Germer experiment used scattering and this phenomenon to demonstrate the wave-particle duality of electrons. An Airy disk is a type of this phenomenon's patterns caused by a circular aperture. For the point, identify this phenomenon in which a light beam bends after encountering a barrier or opening.

Diffraction

The namesake "locking" of these phenomena occurs when a body's rotation and orbit become synchronized. On Earth, these phenomena are strongest at a syzygy and are called "springs," while the weakest types of these phenomena are called "neaps." The gravity of the Sun and Moon on the ocean cause, for the point, what phenomenon, the regular rising and falling of ocean water.

Ocean Tides (or Tidal Forces; accept Tidal locking; accept Tidal heating, working, or flexing; accept Spring tide; accept Neap tide)

This scientist who defended Copernicus in Mysterium Cosmographicum names a law which states that equal area is "swept out" in equal time by an orbiting body. This assistant to Tycho Brahe was the first to demonstrate that a planet's orbit is an ellipse with two foci. For the point, name this German astronomer who names three laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler (accept Kepler's laws of planetary motion; accept Kepler's Second law of planetary motion)

These animals, which were used in Richard G. Morris's spatial memory water navigation tasks, ran into walls to make the namesake sound of Harvey Carr's "kerplunk" experiment. This was the first animal that Little Albert was conditioned to fear by John Watson. For the point, name these rodents who are often put through namesake "races" in mazes as part of learning studies.

Rats (accept Ratrace; prompt on "rodent"; do not accept or prompt on "mice" or "mouse")

Probe varieties of these devices use a piezoelectric actuator tip to map out surfaces. Extremely sensitive varieties of these devices include the atomic force and electron tunneling varieties. Samples examined with these devices are typically placed on a glass slide. For the point, name this lab device that is used to view small things.

Microscope (accept Dark-Field Microscope; accept Scanning Probe Microscope; accept Atomic Force Microscope; accept Electron Tunneling Microscope; accept Compound Microscope; accept Microscopy in place of Microscope)

When k equals set size, the total number of combinations can be found by dividing this function of n over this function of k times this function of the difference between n and k. Applying this function to n gives the number of permutations for n unique objects. For the point, name this function symbolized by an exclamation point, which is equal to the product of all positive integers below a certain value.

Factorial

Like cobalamin, this nutrient is essential for one-carbon transfer oxidations. This nutrient is added to enriched grains to prevent a namesake kind of megaloblastic anemia. Deficiency of this vitamin during early pregnancy can lead to neural tube defects. For the point, name this B vitamin whose name derives from being found in green leafy vegetables.

Folate (or Folic Acid; or Folacin; accept Vitamin B9; accept Tetrahydrofolate; prompt on Vitamin "B")

This phenomenon is possible when a liquid's cohesion is greater than its adhesion. This phenomenon is used by water striders to walk on the surface of lakes and ponds. This phenomenon, which gives bubbles their shape, is weakened by surfactants like detergents. For the point, name this force that holds water into droplets.

Surface Tension (prompt on "tension")

During the Crimean War, this English scientist broke Vigenère's autokey cipher. Ada Lovelace developed punch cards for a proposed invention made by this scientist. The Science Museum in London created a replica of the difference engine based on the notes of, for the point, what British mathematician and early computer scientist, the inventor of the analytical engine?

Charles Babbage (accept Babbage's difference engine, Babbage's analytical engine, or Babbage's engine)

These structures are composed of "small" and "large" subunits and can come in free and membrane-bound varieties. The biogenesis of these structures occurs in the nucleolus. Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum are distinguished by the presence of these structures, which serve as the site of RNA translation. For the point, name these macromolecular machines that synthesize proteins.

Ribosomes (accept Small or Large Ribosomal subunit; accept Free ribosome; accept Membrane-bound ribosome; accept Attached ribosome)

Originally used to remove water from mines in the 18th century, Thomas Newcomen created a version of this technology capable of giving continuous power through the use of pistons. This technology was proliferated by James Watt and is frequently held to have kicked off the industrial revolution by powering factories and trains. For the point, name this technology, a type of engine powered by boiling water.

Steam Engine (accept Steam pump; accept Steam power; prompt on "engine")

The change in the expected position of two stars during one of these events helped prove the existence of gravitational lensing. Baily's Beads are formed by light shining through the Moon's valleys during these events. For the point, name these events, whose total variety occurs when the Moon almost entirely blocks out the Sun.

Solar Eclipse (accept Eclipse of the Sun; accept Total Solar Eclipse; prompt on "eclipse"; do not accept or prompt on "Lunar Eclipse")

Friedrich Wohler disproved vitalism by inorganically synthesizing this compound. This compound's namesake cycle forms it by combining two molecules of ammonia with one of carbon dioxide. For the point, name this compound used in nitrogen excretion, which is found in urine.

Urea (or Carbamide; accept Urea cycle)

Permanent magnet varieties of these devices lack field windings. An H-bridge can be used to allow the DC type of these devices to run forward or backward. These devices create torque from a rotor mounted in a stator. For the point, name this type of motor used to power the Nissan Leaf and Tesla Model 3.

Electric Motor (accept Brushed or Brushless DC electric motor; accept Permanent Magnet electric motor; accept DC electric motor; prompt on "motor")

One theory of the weak force posits that these particles can absorb and release W bosons, causing color change. These particles, which have negative one-third or positive two-thirds charges, come in six flavors, including top, bottom, and strange. For the point, name these fundamental particles which make up protons and neutrons.

Quarks (accept Top, Bottom, or Strange quarks)

The "shocked" variety of this mineral is used as evidence for major meteor impacts, such as the crater at Chicxulub. This mineral is a seven on the Mohs hardness scale and exhibits piezo -electricity. This mineral, which is commonly found in sands, has an electric current passed through it to keep time in many watches. For the point, name this mineral whose chemical name is silicon dioxide.

Quartz (accept Shocked quartz; accept Silicon Dioxide before mentioned; prompt on "silica")

Legless members of this class are called caecilians. Like reptiles, members of this class possess a three-chambered heart. Most members of this class undergo a metamorphosis from having gills to air-breathing lungs. For the point, name this class of vertebrates that includes salamanders and frogs, whose members live on both land and water.

Amphibians (or Amphibia; accept Caecilians before "class")

When formed under an ice sheet, these objects can form tuyas. Most of the destruction caused by these objects is the result of pyroclastic flows. When releasing low viscosity material, these objects can form their "shield" variety. Commonly forming over hot spots and magma chambers, for the point, what are these mountains that can erupt and release lava?

Volcanoes (accept Shield volcano; prompt on "mountains")

This organ's glomerulus is composed of small tufts of capillaries and is enclosed by Bowman's capsule. This organ creates a countercurrent gradient with the loop of Henle. This organ's functional units are called nephrons. The use of dialysis replaces the function of, for the point, what bean-shaped filtration organ that comes in pairs?

Kidneys

While in Sweden, this man published his work Passions of the Soul. This so-called "father of analytical geometry" lends his name to the "coordinate system." This man's Meditations on First Philosophy contains the saying "cogito ergo sum", or "I think, therefore I am." For the point, name this French mathematician and philosopher.

René Descartes [[day-KAHRT]] (or Renatus Cartesius; prompt on "Cartesian coordinates")

This element's tetra-ethyl compound was formerly widely used as a gasoline anti-knock additive. This element is used in radiometric dating because both thorium and uranium ultimately decay into it. This element is used in radiation shields for X-rays due to its high density. For the point, name this toxic heavy metal whose atomic symbol is Pb.

Lead (accept Pb before mentioned)

This quantity is conserved in microscopic reversible processes, but is monotonic in macroscopic processes. According to the Boltzmann–Planck equation, this quantity is equal to k log W. For a perfect crystal at absolute zero, this quantity equals zero. For the point, name this quantity, the measure of total disorder in a system.

Entropy (accept Gibbs entropy; prompt on "S")

This planet, whose moon groups include the Inuit and Gallic types, is orbited by a moon with a possible ring system, Rhea. This planet is orbited by a moon with icy geyser structures, which were sampled by the Cassini Orbiter. Another moon orbiting this planet is the only known moon to possess its own atmosphere. For the point, name this sixth planet from the sun, which is orbited by a brilliant ring system.

Saturn

Lapis lazuli's blue color comes from this element's negatively charged thiozone ion. This element is used to strengthen rubber through vulcanization. When bonded to two hydrogen atoms, this element makes a compound that smells like rotten eggs. For the point, name this chalcogen with atomic number 16.

Sulfur (or S; accept Brimstone; accept Plastic sulfur)

This process names a syndrome associated with neural crest cell function and traits such as spots and floppy ears. A team led by Dmitry Belyayev has performed studies of this process using silver foxes. Unlike taming, this process is inheritable. For the point, name this process by which humans intentionally alter animals to be useful, which resulted in modern dogs arising from a wolf-like ancestor.

Domestication (accept answers referring to domestic animals; do not accept or prompt on "taming" or similar answers)

The first of these objects discovered by the Keck Observatory was the Gliese 876b, and Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2019 for discovering one of these objects named 51 Pegasi b. These objects can be detected with the radial-velocity method, while other methods for detecting these objects include Doppler spectroscopy and transit photometry. Gas Giants, Neptunian, and Super-Earth are types of, for the points, what planetary bodies that orbit a star outside of the solar system?

Exoplanets (or Extrasolar Planets; prompt on "planet"; prompt on "Neptunian" or "Super-Earth" before mentioned)

One form of this property is caused by a mutated DD-transpeptidase enzyme. Genes that confer this property, such as the SCCmec cassette, can be spread through horizontal gene transfer. The misuse of broad-spectrum drugs can cause cells to develop this property, which can be mediated by efflux pumps or beta-lactamases. The strain MRSA has, for the points, what property of bacteria that cannot be killed with drugs such as penicillin?

antibiotic resistance (or antimicrobial resistance; or AMR; or ABR; accept any answer with word forms of resistance that mentions specific antibiotics like penicillin, beta-lactam, or methicillin; prompt on just "resistance")

One pathway of this process involves dimers of the protein Bax and Bak. TNF-alpha receptors can initiate this process upon binding by activation of death domain proteins. Cytochrome c is released into the cytosol during this process, and caspase-9 causes the final destruction of the cell in this process. Blebbing is a characteristic stage of, for the points, what process of programmed cell death, contrasted with necrosis?

Apoptosis

Members of this genus develop from trophozoites into schizonts, and then burst into multiple merozoites to infect red blood cells. Tertian fever can be caused by both the ovale and vivax species of this genus. Artemisinin and quinine are used to treat infections caused by the falciparum species of this parasitic genus, which is carried by the Anopheles mosquito. For the points, name this genus of protozoa that causes malaria.

Plasmodium (accept Plasmodium falciparum; accept Plasmodium vivax; accept Plasmodium ovale)

The phenomenon of "marine snow" or "ocean dandruff" is caused by the falling this material from the water column to the seafloor. In aquatic ecosystems, this material is a source of nutrients for microbes living in the benthic zone, and a standard example of a food chain named after this material on terrestrial ecosystems begins with dead leaves being eaten by a woodlouse, which is then eaten by a blackbird. For the points, name this biological debris that is primarily made of decomposing plant and animal parts, including feces.

Detritus (prompt on answers synonymous to “dead matter” or “debris”)

This asterism is surrounded by stars like Rigel, Castor, and Pollux. This asterism encompasses much of the faint constellation Monoceros. Its three component stars form an equilateral triangle when drawn on the celestial sphere. This asterism contains the brightest stars from Orion, Canis Major, and Canis Minor. For the points, name this asterism which contains three of the brightest stars in the winter sky.

Winter Triangle (do not accept or prompt on “Summer Triangle”)

This region is the namesake of a hypothesis that predicts domal topographic uplift events. Post-perovskite most likely exists in the bottom-most part of this region. The asthenosphere lies below the Moho discontinuity in this layer of Earth. The D-double prime layer marks the boundary between this layer and the outer core. For the points, name this largest layer of Earth below the crust.

Mantle (accept Mantle plume hypothesis)

This region of Earth's atmosphere contains the Kennelly-Heavyside layer. The plasmasphere lies above this atmospheric region. The D layer, E and sporadic E layers, and the F layer subregions all make up this region. The thermosphere is encompassed within this region, which also contains parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. For the points, name this electron-charged region of the atmosphere.

Ionosphere (prompt on mentioned layers until "encompassed")

These land features' location qualifies them as ecotones between river and maritime environments. One of these bodies of water drains into the Atlantic Ocean, and it was formed at the Punta Gorda by the confluence of the Uruguay and Parana Rivers. For the points, name this body of water with a direct connection to the ocean and with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.

Estuary

A "disequilibrium" named for this phenomenon provides the basis for genome-wide association studies. The LOD score is a statistical test for this effect, which is measured in units of centimorgans that correspond to one percent recombination. This effect provides an exception to Mendel's law of independent assortment. For the points, name this phenomenon in which two genes located close together on a chromosome tend to be inherited together.

genetic linkage (accept word forms; accept linkage disequilibrium)

Leopold von Buch divided this period into three categories called the Black, Brown, and White. Remnants of limestone from this geological era were first identified in the French-Swiss mountain range after which this period was named. Constituting the middle of the Mesozoic Era, this is, for the points, what geological period preceded by the Triassic and succeeded by the Cretaceous?

Jurassic Period

The organizers of the KEO, one of these objects in space, said, "All the messages received, without undergoing any censorship, will be embarked aboard," when it launched in 2003. Another one of these objects launched aboard the Voyager spacecraft in 1977 exists as two phonograph records containing 115 images as well as audio samples of greetings spoken in 55 languages. The Voyager Golden Record is an example of, for the points, what memory box that contains present-day objects to be opened in the future?

Time Capsules (accept Voyager Golden Record before mentioned; prompt on “Capsules”; prompt on “Satellite”)

This structure contains a nutritive tissue layer called the tapetum, and the process of dehiscence releases microgametophytes from this structure, which contains all the microsporangia found within angiosperms. The androecium is a collection of these structures, which each consist of a filament and an anther. The pistil is contrasted with, for the points, what pollen-producing structure, the male reproductive organ of the flower?

Stamens (or Stamina; accept Androecium before mentioned; accept Anthers before mentioned; prompt on "Flower")

Along with yttrium and copper, this metal names a type of high-temperature superconductor. This element gives fireworks their green color, and its most common isotope has a mass number of 138. Patients consume a drink containing a sulfate of this element as a contrasting agent before undergoing radiographic examination. For the points, name this Group Two element symbolized Ba.

Barium (accept yttrium barium copper oxide; or YBCO; accept Barium Sulfate; accept Ba alone before mentioned)

Cultural isolation can lead to this phenomenon, which explains why Ellis van Creveld syndrome is common amongst the Amish community in the United States. Ernst Mayr formulated this phenomenon, which is a type of genetic drift, as opposed to the bottleneck effect. The lack of genetic variation within a population can be caused by, for the points, what genetic effect that results when small group of organisms start a new population after diverting from a larger population?

Founder Effect (prompt on “Genetic Drift” before mentioned)

A polymer's glass transition can be quantified using the "differential scanning" type of these devices, and constant volume is maintained in the "bomb" type of these devices, which can more accurately measure a sample's enthalpy of combustion. A simple example of these devices can be constructed with a stirring rod, thermometer, and two nested styrofoam coffee cups. For the points, name these devices that measure the heat given off by a chemical reaction.

Calorimeters (accept Calorimetry; accept Differential Scanning Calorimeters; accept Bomb Calorimeters; accept Coffee Cup Calorimeters)

This mathematician found six proofs of quadratic reciprocity. Complex numbers that have both an integer real and imaginary part are known as this man's "integers." This mathematician names a probability distribution that resembles a "bell curve." According to legend, this man stunned his teacher by calculating the sum of the first 100 positive integers rapidly. For the points, give this mathematician, the namesake of the normal distribution.

Carl Friedrich Gauss (accept Gaussian integers; accept Gaussian Distribution; or Laplace-Gauss Distribution)

This Loss of Coolant Accident was rated a level seven on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event scale, and was triggered by an earthquake. This nuclear disaster released roughly ten times less radiation than the accident at Chernobyl and resulted in a full closure of an island facility. For the points, name this 2011 nuclear reactor accident that took place in Japan after the Tōhoku tsunami and earthquake.

Fukushima Daiichi accident (accept synonymous answers for "Accident" such as "Disaster")

The Heawood conjecture outlines the optimal way of doing this process on different surfaces. A theorem about this process was proven in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, making it the first proof to use a computer. In graph theory, the minimum number required to perform this process is the chromatic number. For the points, name this process of labeling a graph requiring only four of the namesake properties.

Graph coloring (accept Graph labeling; accept four color theorem)

Numbers that have this property but satisfy Fermat's little theorem are known as Carmichael numbers. It's not pronic, but "rectangular numbers" are numbers with this property. The Sieve of Eratosthenes crosses these numbers out in its algorithm. Numbers with this property have at least one other divisor between one and itself. For the points, give this property of a number which can be factored into the product of two smaller numbers, the opposite of prime.

Composite Number

This term is used to refer to a hypothetical situation where technological development becomes uncontrollable or irreversible. A misapplication of general relativity to an infinite time in the past would predict the formation of an object described by this term that contained all of the mass in the universe. For the points, give this term that refers to the infinitely dense center of a black hole.

singularity (accept technological singularity; accept gravitational singularity; or spacetime singularity)

The geometric mean theorem relates the length of one of these segments in a triangle to the lengths of the segments it creates. The inverse Pythagorean theorem relates the length of these segments. These segments of a triangle coincide at its orthocenter. The area of a triangle can be calculated by multiplying one-half times a base times one of these segments. For the points, name these segments drawn from a vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side.

Triangle altitudes

This phenomenon is responsible for the Ekman spiral, and its vertical analogue is known as the Eötvös effect. The National Geographic tested this phenomenon in an experiment where a person throws a ball to the person in front of them while on a roundabout. Contrary to popular opinion, this effect does not have an impact on the direction of toilet flushing in different hemispheres. For the points, name this effect that deflects objects while rotating, an effect caused by a fictitious namesake force.

Coriolis Effect (or Coriolis Force)

This process and its terminology is still commonly used despite our advances in the understanding of the quantum-mechanical nature of the atom. This process, developed under the Bohr model of the atom, has to do with the arrangement of certain particles into their energy sublevels. For the points, name this process of summarizing and arranging electrons into their orbitals, governed by concepts such as the Aufbau principle.

Electron Configuration (accept Electronic Structure; prompt on descriptive answers)

This unit of measurement was named after the inventor of the five-bit teletype code. In digital systems with binary code, this unit of measurement is equivalent to one bit per second. Conversely, in non-digital systems, the informational size of this unit of measurement varies. For the points, name this unit of measurement for the symbol rate that determines the speed of communication over a particular channel.

Baud (prompt on "symbols per second" or "pulses per second")

The lever rule can be applied to these diagrams after drawing their tie lines. The Widom and Frenkel lines on these diagrams separate different parts of a supercritical fluid. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation is used to measure the slope of the coexistence curves on these diagrams, which meet at the triple point. For the points, name these diagrams that plot temperature against pressure to show where a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.

phase diagrams (or P-T diagrams)

This compound has the lowest melting point of any alkane. This molecule is both the lightest and most major constituent of liquid petroleum gas. The combustion of this compound results in four molecules of water and three molecules of carbon dioxide. This molecule contains one less carbon than butane. For the points, what compound with chemical formula C3H8 is commonly used in portable stoves?

Propane

Orally active drugs have no more than five donors of these interactions according to Lipinski's rule. The secondary structure of proteins is determined by these interactions. These interactions are stronger than van der Waals forces but weaker than covalent bonds. These interactions hold together water molecules. For the points, identify these bonds named for the first element on the Periodic Table.

hydrogen bonds (accept H-Bond)

One form of this quantity is calculated as effective nuclear charge over the covalent radius squared when using the Allred-Rochow scale. Differences in this quantity between atoms give rise to inductive effects. Cesium has the lowest value for this quantity on the Pauling scale, which ranges from 0.8 to 4.0 and increases towards the top right of the periodic table. For the points, name this quantity, the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

electronegativity (accept word forms)

Marian Smoluchowski proposed a theoretical perpetual motion machine powered by this process called its namesake "ratchet". In mathematics, this phenomenon is modeled by the Wiener Process, a stochastic one-dimensional model of it. This phenomenon was the subject of the second of Albert Einstein's Annus Mirabilis papers, and was first observed by its namesake in pollen grains in water. For the points, name this random movement of particles in a fluid.

Brownian motion (accept pedesis, accept Brownian Ratchet; prompt on “random walk”)

Pebbles of this rock are nicknamed Apache tears. Gray spherulites at crystallization sites in this rock define its "snowflake" variety. This rock, which is often formed by cooling polymerized felsic lava, contains few crystals due to its viscosity. This extrusive igneous rock has a conchoidal fracture that makes it a common material for scalpel blades. For the points, name this glossy black volcanic glass.

Obsidian

An increased risk of developing this condition has been associated with the FOXD3 gene, as well as variations of the NLRP1 and PTPN22 genes. This condition is classified as segmental or non-segmental, the latter of which can be further classified into focal, acrofacial, and mucosal. Michael Jackson notably suffered from, for the points, what condition that occurs when the body stops producing melanin, leading to patchy discolorations of the skin?

Vitiligo [[vih-tuh-"LIE"-goh]] (or Leucoderma; accept Segmental Vitiligo; accept Non-segmental Vitiligo; accept Generalized Vitiligo; accept Universal Vitiligo; accept Focal Vitiligo; accept Acrofacial Vitiligo; accept Mucosal Vitiligo)

The Sleeping Beauty system uses one of these sequences to splice genes into vertebrate chromosomes. LINEs, SINEs, and Alu elements are examples of the "retro" type of these sequences, which act though a "copy and paste" mechanism with an RNA intermediate. Barbara McClintock's studies of corn led to the discovery of these "jumping genes." For the points, name these DNA sequences which can change their position within the genome.

transposons (or transposable elements; or TEs; accept retrotransposons; accept jumping genes before mention but prompt afterwards)

Edward Lorenz's work on numerical methods to perform this task using pressure, wind speed and other metrics led him to determine that the phenomena involved in this task are non--linear. Due to the atmosphere behaving as a chaotic system, this task is often only accurate for up to two weeks at most. Air precipitation, temperature and cloud movement can help with this task. For the point, name this task of determining atmospheric conditions.

forecasting the

This sort of mixture is the active ingredient in a Jones reductor. Hydrochloric acid and one of these mixtures with Zinc are used to reduce ketones in a Clemmensen reduction. In dentistry, these mixtures with around 25% silver and 10% copper are controversially used for some fillings. The protective layer of aluminum oxide is quickly corroded by mercury forming one of these mixtures. For the point, name these mixtures, the uniting of mercury and another metal.

amalgams [prompt

This duck--typed language was used to write the web building framework Django. This interpreter language, which is now on version 3.7, still provides some backwards compatibility for version 2.7 which was sunsetted in 2020. This language was created by Guido van Rossum in and provides ample readability by requiring tabs to delimit bodies. For the point, name this programming language named for a comedy sketch crew and not after a snake.

Python

The superclusters and voids that permeate this phenomenon were elucidated by Martin Rees and Dennis Sciamma, giving an explanation for how photons are affected by this phenomenon in the Sachs--Wolfe effect. The polarization patterns of this phenomenon can be divided into E and B modes, and satellite missions to collect data from this phenomenon include COBE, WMAP and Planck. Bell Labs astronomers Robert Pensiaz and Arno Wilson won the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of this "radiation noise." For the point, name this radiation that permeates the universe whose wavelength is the same radiation range as that used to quickly reheat food.

Cosmic Microwave

A spectrum of an operator contains scalars of this prefix by the Spectral theory. Roots of the characteristic polynomial of a matrix have this prefix. Both x in the equation A x equals lambda x and the scalars it contains are prefixed by this word for a given matrix A. This prefix comes from the German for "characteristic" and lambda is used in Linear Algebra to represent scalars with this prefix. For the point, name this prefix of certain values and vectors of matrices.

eigen [accept

AGAMOUS is a mutant in a long--day model organism used to study this process. Cadastral genes play a role in dividing out three regions where type A and C genes are mutually antagonistic in the ABC Model of this process. This process results in the formation of perianth, pistils and stamens. For the point, name this characteristic angiosperm--related process during which a reproductive organ with petals is formed by plants like roses and tulips.

budding [accept

The controversial compound Thimerosal is used as a preservative for some of these preparations. Aluminum hydroxide is an adjuvant used in some of these preparations which come in attenuated and inactivated varieties. Andrew Wakefield lost his practising licence for continuously claiming that the MMR one of these preparations could be linked to autism. For the point, name these injections designed to emulate pathogens and strengthen the immune system to prevent infection, which succeeded in eradicating smallpox.

vaccines

In this specific device, an electrolyte serves as a guard separating a certain positive ion and trapping it in graphite while electrons are able to flow back through a circuit. A separator helps prevent explosions in these devices which can sometimes happen when mistakes in the manufacturing process occur causing the cathode and anode to touch, as happened with some Samsung Galaxy Note 7s. For the point, name this rechargeable battery that makes use of the lightest alkali metal.

lithium ion

The curving of clouds around these events leads to a so--called stadium effect. They're not thunderstorms, but the ascending motion of Madden--Julian oscillations is associated with these events. The Northwestern Pacific Ocean is an active basin for these events year round. Hurricane John became one of these things in once it crossed the International Date Line. For the point, name these violent weather storms that affect Taiwan, Japan, the Philippines, and China.

typhoons [prompt

This scientist won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in for his work on discovering a set of biochemical reactions alongside Fritz Lipmann, who received the prize for his related work on Coenzyme A. This scientist gives the alternative name to a cycle that begins with the addition of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and occurs in the matrix of mitochondria as a precursor to oxidative phosphorylation. For the point, name this German--born British biologist who gives an alternate name to the Citric Acid cycle.

Hans Adolf

Lewis acids are responsible for the dative type of this interaction. The inductive effect occurs through these interactions. The bent variety of these interactions cause high ring strain, occur in molecules like cyclopropane, and are alternatively named for resembling bananas. These types of structures form when electrons are shared between two atoms or when one atom rips the electron off another. For the point, name this structure formed between two atoms which include covalent and ionic variants.

bonds [accept

It's not related to chromatography, but one of the most common uses of calculating theoretical plates is for this process to increase its efficiency. A solution of 96% water and 4% ethanol forms when performing this process on ethanol, which cannot be extracted further as the solution is azeotropic. For the point, name this process of separating two liquids by raising temperature to a boiling point.

distillation

In this type of cell, apelin produces a positive feedback loop to increase insulin production. These cells are separated into three tissue types: WAT, MAT, and BAT. The large amount of mitochondria in one type of these cells give them a brown color and assist in thermogenesis. Enterocytes and these cells secrete leptin to help suppress the hunger response which regulates their size and storage. For the point, name these cells that specialize in storing lipid fat droplets.

adipocytes [accept

A widely studied counterexample to many problems in the theory that studies these constructs was given by Julius Petersen; that example of one of these constructs has a Hamilton path, but no Hamilton cycle, a crucial requirement of the travelling salesman problem. Euler helped establish the theory of these constructs by proving that the seven bridges of Konigsberg could be reduced to a problem on one of these constructs. For the point, name these constructs with vertices whose relation is shown through connected edges.

graphs Description

The principle offense that triggered this event came from a text whose two main logical interlocutors Salviati and Sagredo are at argument with a consistently refuted Aristotelian named Simplicio. Shortly after this event, its target apocryphally said "Eppur si muove" or "and yet it moves" in defense of writing the Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems. For the point, name this event where the discoverer of four moons of Jupiter was found guilty of heresy for defending heliocentrism and placed under house arrest until his death.

trial of

If an experiment has this property, repeated measurements of some measurand under identical conditions yields measurements that closely agree. Psychological experiments often fail to have this property, likely because further trials of the same psychological experiment cannot often be assumed to be parallel on the same subjects. For the point, name this property of an experiment where performing the experiment again achieves similar results.

reproducibility [accept

The highest risk of cyclothymia is from the type form of this disorder. Opposite pole symptoms commingle in the "mixed state" specifier for this disease. Rapid cycling is a severe form of this disease characterized by four or more mood episodes in a year. Lithium is commonly used to treat this psychiatric disorder that can cause symptoms of euphoria for periods followed by periods of dysphoria. For the point, name this disease characterized by bouts of mania and depression.

bipolar disorder

Local operations and classical communication can be used to transform states exhibiting this phenomenon. The states exhibiting this phenomenon give rise to Bell pairs. This phenomenon is the subject of a debate where two particles with unstable spins head in opposite directions. The EPR paradox brought up that potential violation due to this phenomenon. Einstein criticized this phenomenon with that paradox calling it "spooky action at a distance." For the point, name this quantum phenomenon where two quantum states are bundled into one.

entanglement [accept

Vervet monkeys and other members of the Chlorocebus genus are sometimes erroneously referred to as the African monkey. A protein from Aequorea victoria, a bioluminescent jellyfish has this color in its name because it emits a wavelength in the 500 range after being excited with blue light. A molecule with a porphyrin ring and a central magnesium ion is found in thylakoids and is responsible for giving off this pigment for organisms that undergo photosynthesis. For the point, name this color reflected by chlorophyll responsible for giving leaves and grass their characteristic hue.

green

These structures' substructure includes a transition function, an instruction table, and an infinite tape written and read by a head pointer. These constructs are the subject of the Busy Beaver Game. An effective method exists for a function over the natural numbers if it is computed by one of these machines according to Alonzo Church. These models are the subject of the halting problem. For the point, name this general--purpose computer model, a so--called machine named for a British computer scientist.

Turing Machine

The lack of terrestrial or aquatic fossils spanning the beginning of this period followed by the transition from placoderms to ray--finned fish is known as Romer's Gap. During this period, predatory predecessors to the modern--day dragonfly with a foot wingspan were thriving. Tree fern based ecosystems dominated following the Rainforest collapse of this period which divided into the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods.For the point, name this geological period that followed the Devonian period, during which global formation of coal beds occurred.

carboniferous period

Events that helped bolster this theory and carry out its predictions include the OPAL experiment at LEP, alongside ALEPH, DELPHI and L3. Those experiments of this theory took place under the European Organization for Nuclear Research. Limitations to this theory include the inability to account for neutrino oscillators or baryon asymmetry. This theory overarches quantum chromodynamics, and was bolstered by the finding of the Higgs boson in 2012. For the point, name this physics "model" that encodes three of the four fundamental forces of physics while classifying the known elementary particles.

standard model

To measure the stiffness of compounds of this type, Hans Kuhn developed a namesake length. An equation modelling the formation of this type of compound sets X bar sub n equal to one divided by quantity one minus the extent of reaction. The production of this type of compound can be modelled by Carothers equation and can be sped up by use of a Ziegler--Natta catalyst. This type of compound is formed by step--growth or a chain--growth mechanism. For the point, name these compounds made up of chains of monomers.

polymers

David Kirzhnits worked with one of the discoverers of this process on its predecessor which proposed "cosmological phase transitions." This process underwent damped oscillations which decayed into radiation equilibrating to the reheat temperature. Alan Guth and Andrei Linde proposed this process as an explanation to the horizon and flatness problems, describing it as a sort--of gravitational repulsion. This process started occurring about to the negative seconds after the principal event that started the universe. For the point, name this process of rapid expansion that occurred shortly after the Big Bang.

Cosmic Inflation

Merlin cannot send Arthur a convincing one of these constructs for all strings not in the language L by the Arthur--Merlin protocol. The relationship between computer programs and these constructs is given by the Curry--Howard correspondence. At the University of Illinois, Appel and Haken controversially used a computer to create one of these constructs. In geometry, Side angle side and angle side angle are sufficient for creating one of these constructs for triangle congruence. The two--column technique of creating these constructs is commonly taught in geometry. These constructs typically end with a square or Q.E.D. at the end. For the point, name this task of validating a mathematical theorem.

proof

Kleine--Levin syndrome is characterized by chronic occurences of this process. It's not appetite--related, but the hormone orexin or hypocretin has been linked to breaking this process. The suprachiasmatic nucleus over the optic chiasm tract breaks this process in response to sunlight, which is brought on in part by the hormone melatonin. Apnea can obstruct and rapid eye movement can occur during this circadian--rhythm regulated process. For the point, name this biological process fundamental to most animals during which dreams occur.

sleeping [or

Henry Fox Talbot's Calotype was a version of this process that made use of gallic acid. Thomas Wedgwood was an early pioneer in this process whose work does not survive due to not having a fixing agent to add to the silver nitrate. Charge coupled devices are commonly used in astronomy for this process because of their high quantum efficiency and taking advantage of auto--guiding as well as dark frame subtraction to create a less noisy result. An early form of this process worked by taking advantage of how light oxidises silver grains and used sheets of metal copper coated with silver iodide and is known today as the Daguerreotype. For the point, name this technique of creating images from captured film.

photography [accept

A displacement field related to this vector quantity is equal to the polarization plus this vector quantity times a constant. The curl of this vector field is equal to the negative partial derivative of the curl of magnetic vector potential. Gauss's law sets the divergence of this vector field equal to charge density over permittivity. In Lorentz's force law, this field is multiplied by charge, as its strength at any point is calculated as force divided by charge. For the point, name this field that influences the movement of charges, contrasted with the magnetic field.

Electric field

For the discovery of how semiconductors could be used to create these devices, Brattain, Bardeen and Shockley were rewarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. This device is similar to a diode but has three layers either as NPN or PNP. The two main flavors of these devices are Bipolar Junction and Field Effect. Integrated circuits doubled the amount of these elements every year according to Moore's law prediction. For the point, name these elements named for behaving like a resistor that can transfer electrical signals.

transistors [accept

The functional units of this organ can communicate by Pores of Kohn, which mature at the age of around the same side of this organ's canals of Lambert. Angiotensin converting enzymes not produced by vascular endothelium are predominantly found in the circulation of these organs. DPPC is a major component of the surfactant produced by these organs to maintain surface tension with the atmosphere. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of these organs, which are divided into five distinct lobes and inflate through contraction of the diaphragm. For the point, name these organs responsible for oxygen uptake from the air.

lungs

Roger Apery proved the sum of over n cubed from to infinity has this property, equivalent to the Riemann Zeta function of 3. Thomae's function is continuous for this type of number which it outputs zero for. The continued fraction representation of these numbers are non--terminating. Legendarily, Hippasus was drowned for telling followers of Pythagoras that a number of this type existed. This type of number cannot be represented as a fraction with an integer in both the numerator and denominator. For the point, name this subset of the real numbers whose decimal form is non--terminating, such as pi and radical 2.

irrational

The "deep" variety of these phenomena is driven by thermohaline circulation. These phenomena form the confines of gyres such as the Sargasso Sea. Benjamin Franklin was the first person to chart one of these phenomena in the Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf Stream is a prominent warm-water version, for the point, what large flows of water that circulate water through the world's oceans?

Ocean Currents

The temperature at which a volatile compound undergoes this reaction most readily is called the flashpoint. Smoldering is an extended, slow rate form of this reaction. The incomplete form of this reaction produces carbon monoxide and solid carbon instead of the typical CO2 and water. For the point, name this form of rapid exothermic redox reactions in which fuel is burned.

Combustion (accept Incomplete combustion; accept Burning before mentioned; accept answers indicating Flames or Fire before “Flashpoint,” and prompt after; prompt on "oxidation," "reduction," or "redox" reactions)

This disease's likelihood is increased by the presence of mutations to the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Surgical treatments for this disease include a lumpectomy or a mastectomy. Awareness groups for this disease use pink ribbon logos. The mammogram can be used to detect, for the point, what cancer most commonly found in women?

Breast Cancer (accept Ductal carcinoma; accept Lobular carcinoma; prompt on "cancer")

The fractional form of this technique is used to refine petroleum products. This technique, which cannot separate azeotropes without an additional component, is used to produce spirits from fermented products. For the point, name this technique of separating mixtures based on boiling point.

Classical Distillation (accept Fractional distillation)

The discovery that these objects were once much more plentiful in the early universe helped refute the steady-state thesis. Gravitational lensing can cause multiples of these objects to appear, as in an Einstein cross. A supermassive black hole rapidly accretes new matter, creating for the point, what highly luminous active galactic nuclei?

Quasars (accept Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources; accept Quasi-Stellar Objects or QSOs; prompt on "Active Galactic Nuclei" or "AGN" before read)

The most common types of this nutrient are phylloquinone and menaquinone. This vitamin, which is synthesized by gut bacteria, is often given as a shot to newborn babies to prevent hemorrhaging. For the point, name this vitamin found in dark, leafy plants, which is necessary for blood clotting.

Vitamin K

This material releases heat as it cures, requiring coolants such as water or liquid nitrogen to be pumped through it as it sets. This material's reinforced type is augmented with steel rebar. This material is composed of rough aggregate held together with a binding agent. For the point, name this material made of stone set in cement that is used to make structures such as buildings and dams.

Concrete (accept Reinforced concrete; prompt on "cement" until mentioned)

Planck's constant times frequency finds the energy of these particles. Young's double-slit experiment showed that these particles can interfere with themselves. The collision of these particles with metals can release electrons as part of a certain "electric" effect. The carrier of the electromagnetic force are, for the point, what massless particles, the quanta of light?

Photons

A byproduct of this crop named Bagasse is seen as a potential energy source, and Brazil is the world's leading producer of this good. Production of this crop in the Caribbean is the largest driving force in deforestation in the region. Molasses is a valuable byproduct from processing this crop. For the point, name this perennial grass, a crop grown to produce a namesake sweet substance.

Sugarcane (prompt on "Sugar")

The Australian town of Lightning Ridge produces this material's "black" form. This material fluoresces UV light and can create rainbow-like reflections. For the point, name this hydrated, amorphous type of silica, whose gem grade varieties are noted for their iridescence.

Opal (accept Black opal; prompt on "Silica" before mentioned)

One type of these events occur when the mass of an inert core overcomes degeneracy pressure, causing core collapse. The 1a type of these events are used as a standard candle and occur when a white dwarf exceeds the Chandrasekar limit. For the point, name these extremely bright stellar events, the explosion of a star.

Supernova (accept Type 1A Supernova; prompt on "SN" or "SNe"; do not accept or prompt on "nova")

The most common type of this ecosystem is the "fringing" variety, which grows in shallow waters just below the surface. These ecosystems can create atolls when the island around which they grow erodes below sea level. Colonies of polyps held together by calcium carbonate from, for the point, what ecosystem, the largest of which is the Great Barrier in Australia?

Coral Reef (accept Fringing reef or Fringing coral reef; prompt on "Reef" or "Great Barrier Reef")

Environmental cues called zeitgebers entrain these phenomena, which are triggered by the release of melatonin from the pineal gland. Exposure to artificial blue light can disrupt these phenomena, which are controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. For the point, name this phenomenon, the body's natural sleep-wake cycle.

Circadian Rhythm (or Circadian Clock; or Circadian Cycle)

This element forms a double bond with benzene in the Birch Reduction. This element was first isolated by Sir Humphrey Davy by using electrolysis on this element's hydroxide, which is also called caustic soda, or lye. This element is exchanged with potassium in an active transport pump. For the point, name this element that reacts with chlorine to form table salt.

Sodium (accept Na; or Natrium)

Along with Uranus, this body's existence was predicted by the now-debunked Titius-Bode law. Along with Vesta, this sole dwarf planet of the inner Solar System was visited by the Dawn spacecraft. For the point, name this largest asteroid, which is named for the Roman goddess of the harvest.

1 Ceres

Much modern knowledge of the historical western practice of this profession derives from the works of Galen. The code of ethics governing this profession is often written to include the phrase "first, do no harm." For the point, name this profession which is governed by the Hippocratic oath.

Medicine (accept Medical; accept Doctors; accept Healing; accept Surgery; accept synonymous answers)

This element's crystalline form is the primary component of photovoltaic cells. Integrated circuits frequently utilize a thinly sliced "wafer" of this element. This element is the most common material used in modern semiconductors. For the point, name this element with atomic number 15, which sits directly below carbon on the periodic table.

Silicon (or Si)

This disease, which is caused by a namesake bacteria-derived toxin, is sometimes called "The Blue Death." The main treatment for this disease involves lightly sweetened water-based liquids or oral rehydration therapy. For the point, name this bacterial disease spread by contaminated drinking water, which causes diarrhea so severe it can cause deadly dehydration.

Cholera (accept Cholera toxin or Choleragen; accept Blue Death before mentioned)

This constellation contains the Amazon Star, Bellatrix. The stars Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka make up this constellation's namesake "belt." This constellation's brightest stars are Rigel and Betelgeuse. For the point, name this constellation depicting a hunter from Greek mythology.

Orion (accept Orion's belt)

This organ, which contains a duct named for scientist Giovanni Santorini, releases its namesake digestive juices into the small intestine through the Duct of Wirsung. This organ's endocrine-producing cells are contained within the Islets of Langerhans. Type One diabetes is caused by the immune system attacking this organ's beta cells. For the point, name this organ that secretes insulin.

Pancreas (accept Pancreas juice(s))

Modern computers typically replace these devices with solid-state technology. Individual blocks of data in these devices can be retrieved in any order, allowing for random-access memory. For the point, name this component of a computer used for long-term storage, whose capacity can be measured in terabytes or megabytes.

Hard Drive (or Hard Disk Drive; or HDD; or Fixed Disk; prompt on "storage" or "disk"; do not accept or prompt on "memory")

Candidates for the composition of this entity include GIMPS, WIMPS, and sterile neutrinos. This entity gets its name from interacting with gravity but not electromagnetic radiation, making it hard to detect. For the point, name this form of matter which is believed to make up 80 percent of the known mass in the universe.

Dark Matter (accept Dark Matter halo; do not accept or prompt on "dark energy")

According to Carmichael's Theorem, for every value over twelve, the nth member of this construct will have at least one unique prime divisor. This construct's closed-form expression can be found with Binet's formula. This construct converges at the golden ratio. A tiling spiral illustrates, for the point, what sequence named for an Italian mathematician, whose first five numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5?

Fibonacci Sequence (or Fibonacci Numbers)

This scientist's namesake equation governs the wave function of a quantum-mechanical system. This scientist created a thought experiment involving a Geiger counter, a hammer, and poison to illustrate flaws with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. For the point, name this Austrian physicist who is best remembered for theorizing a cat who is both dead and alive.

Erwin Schrödinger (or Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger; accept Schrödinger's Cat; accept Schrödinger equation)

In one thought experiment, this scientist imagined a cannon tall enough to fire a cannonball into orbit. This scientist names the standard SI unit of force, and, coinciding with Leibniz. This author of Principia Mathematica independently developed calculus. For the point, name this English physicist who described the three laws of motion and a namesake law of universal gravitation.

Isaac Newton (or Sir Isaac Newton; accept Newton's flaming laser sword; accept Newton's laws of motion)

This disease can be treated with the four-drug RIPE regimen. The formation of a bump under the skin in the Mantoux test is a positive sign for this disease which presents as nodules that can be viewed with a chest x-ray. For the point, name this respiratory disease caused by mycobacterium, which was historically called consumption.

Tuberculosis (or TB; accept Consumption before mentioned)

At this university's Ryerson Lab, Robert Millikan conducted his oil drop experiment to measure elementary electrical charge. Enrico Fermi built the world's first nuclear reactor under this university's squash court stands. For the point, name this Illinois research university in Hyde Park.

University of Chicago

The lowered activity of this gland is present in Hashimoto's disease. Parafollicular cells or C cells in this organ secrete calcitonin. The pituitary gland produces TSH to stimulate this other gland in its neuroendocrine axis. Overactivity of this gland can be caused by the autoimmune Graves' disease. Goiter is the swelling of this gland when the body is deficient in period iodine For the point, name this butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck.

thyroid gland (do not accept parathyroid gland)

The gamma function is a generalization of this function. The terms in Taylor series involve this function in the denominator. This function applied to zero is defined to be one and this function describes the number of permutations of a given set of objects. For the point, multiplying a given integer with each positive integer below it - like 4 times 3 times 2 times 1 - defines what function symbolized by an exclamation point?

factorial

The longest year by year record of concentrations of this molecule in the middle troposphere is plotted on the Keeling curve. In the atmosphere, this molecule is the major contributor to an effect where the sun's rays are absorbed by the atmosphere rather than reflecting back out into space. The majority of greenhouse emissions are caused by, for the point, what molecule referred to as "dry ice" in solid form?

carbon dioxide (accept CO2)

The IEEE 802.15.1 was the last standardization of this technology. Jim Kardach developed this technology to allow mobile phones to communicate with computers. This technology works via short-linked radio wave pairing and had its symbol taken from stones at Jelling. For the point, name this technology standard whose name is taken from the Viking Harald's runes referring to the color of a dental feature.

Bluetooth

A separatory funnel is used to isolate compounds from immiscible types of these substances in liquid-liquid extraction. Since they don't form hydrogen bonds, DMSO and acetone are the "polar aprotic" type of these substances. In aqueous mixtures, water acts as one of these substances and is often called their "universal" type. For the point, name these substances in which a solute dissolves to form a solution.

solvents (prompt on liquids before liquid is read)

The Fv region of this class of proteins contains the paratope section and loops that make up the complementary determining region. One of these compounds called adalimumab is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis; that "monoclonal" type only binds to one epitope. The heavy and light chains of these proteins are arranged into a Y shape. For the point, name these immune system proteins that bind to antigens.

antibody (or antibodies)

This effect causes a namesake broadening of spectral lines. The Ives-Stillwell experiment tested time dilation predicted by special relativity by measuring this effect on light. The speeds of the source and receiver are used to determine the observed frequency from this effect. For the point, name this effect which causes the pitch of fire truck sirens to descend as they drive away.

Doppler effect

Users of these systems search for "nonces" in a proof-of-work protocol to earn value in a process called "mining." One of these systems called Ethereum uses a decentralized virtual machine and the ticker symbol ETH. The first of these systems was invented under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto, and uses a public "blockchain" ledger to track transactions between virtual wallets. Bitcoin is a type of, for the point, what digital "money" systems?

cryptocurrency (or cryptocurrencies; accept “Bitcoin” before Ethereum is mentioned; prompt on “currency” or “money”)

An abnormally high concentration of iridium suggests a possible interpretation of this event according to the Alvarez hypothesis, which is based on evidence at Mexico's Chicxulub crater. The Paleogene began after this event. The population of ferns spiked after this event, which may have been caused by a giant asteroid. This event marked the end of the Mesozoic era, which was about 65 million years ago. For the point, name this event that wiped out a group of large reptiles.

extinction of the dinosaurs (accept Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) or Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction)

Organisms in this class are dying off from infection by chytrid fungus. Caecilians in this class have two tentacles on their heads and resemble snakes, while the other orders of this class are Urodela and Anura. Members of this class may lose their gills after undergoing metamorphosis and may start life as a tadpole. For the point, name this class of larva staged water breathers that transition to land which includes salamanders and frogs.

Amphibia (or amphibians)

Miller indices are used in the study of these substances, which were studied by Auguste Bravais. Triclinic, orthorhombic, and tetragonal are classifications of these substances, which can be primitive or face-centered. These materials are contrasted with amorphous materials because they have long-range order. For the point, name these solid materials that have repeated units in a lattice structure, such as diamond.

crystal (accept crystal system or unit cell before mention)

The Allred-Rochow form of this quantity is related to the effective nuclear charge. This dimensionless quantity – symbolized chi – generally ranges from about 0.7 to 4. One type of this quantity named for Mulliken is calculated as the mean average of electron affinity and first ionization energy. On Pauling's scale for this quantity, fluorine is assigned the highest value. For the point, name this quantity which measures the ability of an atom to attract electrons.

electronegativity

For this technique, ThermoFisher offers instruments that are customized for its HPLC and hydrophilic interaction variants. The gas form of this technique has higher retention times when the liquid and analyte have similar polarities. In the setup to one form of this technique, the bottom of the stationary phase is placed in water for a period of time. Colors of ink can be separated using, for the point, what technique used for separating mixtures

chromatography (accept more specific answers like high performance liquid chromatography; gas chromatography; thin-film chromatography; column chromatography; or paper chromatography)

Elements in this group react with magnesium to form Grignard reagents. This group contains the rarest naturally-occurring element in Earth's crust, astatine. This is the only group with elements in solid, liquid, and gas phases at STP. Table salt contains an alkali metal and an element from this group. For the point, name this group with seven valence electrons that includes fluorine and chlorine.

halogens

Lofti Zadeh introduced the "fuzzy" form of this discipline where variables can take on "degrees of truth." The Boolean form of this discipline uses 0s and 1s alongside operations like AND, OR, and XOR. This five-letter science was grounded by Aristotle in syllogisms such as "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal." For the point, name this five-letter science of reasoning and deduction.

logic (accept Boolean logic; accept fuzzy logic; accept fuzzy set theory; prompt on “set theory”)

A SELF-1 gene was recently discovered in a model organism that falls under this broader animal classification. Fire and Mello worked on RNA interference in a model organism under this classification. C. Elegans falls under nematodes which are a part of this broader classification that is divided into segmented and unsegmented variants. Parasitic "round" ones and "tape" ones fall under, for the point, what classification that includes "earth" which eat soil?

worms (accept Nematodes or Nematoda)

When these formations are beneath glaciers, they can cause floods called j ö kulhlaups. Tephra such as lapilli and bombs are produced by these formations. Pahoehoe and ‘a'a can be released from these entities. Olympus Mons is an example of these features on Mars, while Earthly "shield" ones include Mauna Loa. Cinder cones and composite cones are types of, for the point, what formations from which lava can erupt?

volcanoes (prompt on mountains)

This is the one-letter abbreviation of the amino acid glutamine. The end of a polypeptide opposite the carboxy-terminus is denoted by this letter. Diploid and haploid sets of chromosomes are most commonly written as multiples of this letter. An element symbolized by this letter undergoes "fixation" by rhizobia and is found in amine groups. For the point, name this letter, the chemical symbol for nitrogen.

N

OPSI is a fatal complication caused by the removal of this organ. The enlargement of this organ is a common symptom of mononucleosis. It's not the kidney, but corpuscles named after Marcello Malpighi are found in this organ. The marginal zone separates the red and white pulp of this organ. Functions of this organ include storing and creating red blood cells. For the point, name this organ similar to a lymph node that filters and cleans blood.

spleen

This man and his student Leo Szilard invented a refrigerator with no moving parts. This physicist explained Brownian motion using atomic collisions and he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. This scientist formulated the theories of relativity. For the point, name this physicist who formulated the equation E equals m c squared.

Albert Einstein

The complex quadratic "f-of-z equals z-squared plus c" defines one of these sets. One of these geometric constructs named for Sierpinski is produced by removing an equilateral triangle from each larger iteration. These constructs were first introduced in the paper "How Long Is the Coast of Britain?" by Benoit Mandelbrot. For the point, name these self-similar geometric figures that contain an infinite number of copies of themselves

fractals (accept Mandelbrot sets until ‘Sierpinski’ is mentioned)

These materials cause the splitting of spectral lines in an effect named for Pieter Zeeman. Particularly strong examples of these entities often contain rare-earth metals like neodymium. The strength of fields created by these objects is measured in Gauss or Teslas and permanent examples are named after iron. For the point, name these objects which possess north and south poles and which can be found in compasses or attached to refrigerators.

magnets (accept ferromagnets; accept permanent magnets; accept magnetic fields)

A Canon on this field of science proposes eight varieties of equipoise and divides cosmology into earth, water, air, and fire; that text was composed by Avicenna. Imhotep was deified as a god of this field of science. Hippocrates, often considered the founder of the modern form of this science, wrote an oath which states to "first do no harm." For the point, name this field of science associated with diagnosis and treatment.

medicine (prompt on healing)

The interior composition of these stars is explored by NASA's NICER mission. When these stars maintain their angular momentum, they blink beams of radiation at their poles; an effect first noticed by Antony Hewish and Jocelyn Bell who dubbed them "little green men." Examples of this class of stars include pulsars and magnetars. For the point, name these dense stars made up and named for non-positively charged nucleons.

neutron stars (accept pulsars before mentioned)

Oceanus Procellarum of this object, part of Flamsteed P, was landed on by the Surveyor 1 probe. Mapping of this object was done by Clementine. This object may have been formed from a collision by Theia, an idea called the giant-impact hypothesis. One of the maria on this object is the Sea of Tranquillity. Chang'e 4 landed on the "dark side" of this object. For the point, name this celestial object that orbits the third planet from the sun.

Earth’s moon (accept Luna) (MS) Science Bee Quarterfinals

In the G protein-coupled signal transduction pathway, this molecule is used by adenylyl cyclase to synthesize secondary messenger cAMP. Large amounts of this molecule are synthesized during oxidative phosphorylation via a namesake synthase enzyme located in the mitochondria. For the points, name this "energy currency" of the cell, a molecule consisting of adenine, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.

ATP (or Adenosine Triphosphate)

Recovery is one of the two options after this effect occurs, which was exhibited by the American bison after its population size grew from an estimated 750 in 1890 to about 360,000 by the year 2000. The Toba catastrophe theory suggests that humans faced this effect 75,000 years ago after the eruption of a supervolcano in Indonesia. Environmental disasters, habitat destruction, and overhunting can result in, for the points, what form of genetic drift, which occurs when a drastic reduction of a population size changes its gene pool?

Bottleneck Effect (or Population Bottleneck; or Genetic Bottleneck; prompt on “Genetic Drift” before mentioned)

A supernova remnant in this constellation, formally known as 3C 10, is also referred to as "Tycho Supernova Remnant" since the astronomer discovered the object in 1572. The five brightest stars of this constellation — Segin, Ruchbah, Gamma Cas, Schedar, and Caph — make up its most prominent feature, which resembles a queen sitting on her throne. For the points, name this constellation that can be recognized by the naked eye in the shapes of an "M" or "W", named after a mythological queen of Ethiopia.

Cassiopeia (or Cassiopeiae)

This structure is sometimes referred to as Palade granules, which are composed of RNA and ribonucleoprotein. Tetracycline blocks the aminoacyl-tRNA and peptidyl-tRNA during a process that takes place in this structure. This structure is comprised of two subunits denoted as 30S in prokaryotes and 40S in eukaryotes. Translation occurs in, for the points, what protein-synthesizing organelle that resides in the nucleus and nucleolus and gives a form of endoplasmic reticulum its "rough" appearance?

Ribosomes (accept Palade granules before mentioned)

Proteins are "displayed" on the surface of the M13 class of these agents in a common method for directed evolution. The T2 type of these agents was labelled with radioactive sulfur and phosphorus in the Hershey-Chase experiment that proved DNA is genetic material. When reproducing, these agents can switch from the lysogenic to the lytic cycle, which destroys their host cell. For the points, name these viruses that infect bacteria.

bacteriophages (or phages; accept phage display; prompt on "virus")

According to Emery's rule, the social form of this behavior is seen between two closely related organisms, which is exhibited when the larvae of large blue butterflies employ ant mimicry. Great frigate birds stealing the prey of another seabird and cuckoo bees laying in the nests of other bees exhibit the klepto- form of this behavior. The presence of tapeworms inside a human's intestines is a prime example of, for the points, what type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another?

Parasitism (accept other word forms; accept Social Parasitism; accept Kleptoparasitism; accept Brood Parasitism; accept Adelphoparasitism; prompt on “Symbiosis” before mentioned)

Ninety percent of the bacteria that live in this location come from the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Microorganisms that live in this habitat form a biochemical signaling axis with the brain. Barry Marshall found that ulcers can be caused by H. pylori bacteria living in this habitat, whose collective organismal community is called the flora or microbiota. The colon contains the highest concentration of bacteria living in, for the points, what body system?

digestive system (accept digestive tract; accept gut; accept gastrointestinal tract; accept GI tract; accept stomach; accept small intestines; accept large intestines; accept intestines; accept colon before mention; prompt on "body" or "human body")

These structures were found to have eighty shapes according to a classification system devised by Ching Woo Lee and Choji Magono. Another classification of these structures is outlined in the Nakaya diagram, which suggests that its various formations are dependent on supersaturation and temperature. Formed through the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process, these are, for the points, what single ice crystals that come in columns, dendrites, and needles varieties, in which a common adage says that "no two are alike"?

Snowflakes (accept Ice Crystals or Snow Crystals before “crystals” is mentioned; prompt on “Crystals” before mentioned)

These events occur when the sun and moon are separated by ninety degrees as viewed from Earth. These events are predicted by measuring the rise of sea levels, and a small range of heights indicates these events whereas a large range indicates the spring type. Sometimes referred to as a quadrature tide, for the points, what is this tide that occurs when there's a difference between high and low water?

Neap Tide (or Quadrature Tide before mentioned; prompt on "Tide")

One of these places called Sudbury Basin was formed after the Nuna supercontinent was hit by a bolide. These places, the largest of which is the Vredefort in South Africa, include one underneath Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula called Chicxulub. These places typically have raised rims and floors lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. For the points, name these places created when meteorites hit the Earth's surface.

Impact craters (accept Astroblemes)

This person ended his Nobel Prize lecture by stating "Beauty is the splendor of truth." An observatory named for this scientist includes the ACIS, or Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer, and is NASA's flagship X-ray telescope. A value named for this man is about 1.4 solar masses and is the maximum mass that a stable white dwarf can have. For the points, name this Indian-American astrophysicist who spent most of his professional career as a professor at the University of Chicago.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (accept Chandrasekhar limit; prompt on “Chandra” or “Chandra X-ray Observatory”)

This mountain is home to the Pangboche Crater near its summit and formed during the Noachian Period. This mountain is associated with the Tharsis Montes chain, and has a surface area larger than Hungary. Of known peaks, this mountain is only possibly surpassed by Rheasilvia on Vesta, standing at a height of 72,000 feet. For the points, name this volcano, the highest of Mars and the Solar System.

Olympus Mons (accept Nix Olympica)

A body part that allows some animals to perform this ability is the called the melon, which is an area of the head made of adipose tissue. Although this ability is primarily produced through the mouth, the horseshoe variety of one species perform this ability through their nostrils. Porpoises can evade orcas due to this ability, which is produced at around 130 kilohertz. Produced at the same frequencies as an ultrasound, this is, for the points, what sensory ability used by bats and whales to help them navigate by sound?

Echolocation (prompt on “Sound Waves”; prompt on “Sonar”)

A population's standard deviation is divided by the square root of this quantity to give the standard error of the mean. The distribution of sample means approaches a normal distribution as this quantity increases according to the central limit theorem. The mean of a set equals the sum of the values divided by this quantity. For the points, name this quantity symbolized n, which is the number of data points in a set.

sample size (or population size; accept n before mention; prompt on answers such as "how many there are" or "the number of values there are")

A precursor to this technique produces a Taylor cone from a sample that is dispersed by electrospray. The "tandem" form of this technique is used to sequence proteins. Gas chromatography is often paired with this technique, which produces sizable M and M+2 isotope peaks when the sample contains bromine or chlorine. The m-to-z ratio is measured by, for the points, what spectroscopic technique that separates ions by their weight?

mass spectrometry (or mass spectroscopy; or MS; accept tandem mass spectrometry; accept GC-MS)

This element was the metal constituent in a chemical which was involved in a 1990 explosion at a Russian military plant in Utika. Another compound containing this metal has the lowest dispersive power for a solid. Isotopes of this element break into two alpha particles. The alkaline earth metal with the lowest mass, for the points, what element has atomic number 4 and symbol Be?

Beryllium (accept Be before mentioned; accept Beryllium oxide or Beryllium fluoride)

This man names a rule for differentiating under the integral sign. The alternating series test in series convergence is alternately named for this mathematician. This man, whose philosophical works include Discourse on Metaphysics, also published a text which presented a formulation of a subject that another mathematician explained with fluxions. For the points, name this mathematician who invented calculus independently of Isaac Newton.

Gottfried Leibniz (or Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

In H Two regions, Bok globules are extremely cold locations where this process may occur. This process, which occurs at high rates in starburst galaxies, leads to the formation of a protoplanetary disk. The photograph The Pillars of Creation shows this process, which starts after the collapse of a giant molecular cloud. For the points, name this process that occurs in stellar nurseries, forming objects like the Sun.

Star formation (accept reasonable equivalents like stars being created)

After this scientist became the first to isolate benzene, he became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution. With his ice pail experiment, this chemist and physicist developed an enclosure wherein electromagnetic fields are blocked. For the points, name this inventor of the homopolar generator who developed a namesake law on electromagnetic induction.

Michael Faraday (accept Faraday's Law of Induction; accept Faraday's Cage)

In Tierra del Fuego, these structures have resulted in major losses in fauna life. These structures are often designed to protect shelters called lodges using moats. These structures, which often result in excess nutrient removal, are anchored by branches pointing upstream, making the animals that make them keystone species. For the points, name these structures created on streams by large rodents.

Beaver dams (accept Beaver ponds; prompt on "Dams")

The trailing suction method of this task involves filling hoppers with material and unloading it once full, while another method involves use of a suction device and a specialized augur. Leonardo Da Vinci developed a schematic for a "drag" tool to perform this task, which was done in ancient times to construct harbors along the Eastern Mediterranean. Sometimes used to recycle sand for "beach nourishment," for the points, what is the term for excavating material from beneath the water?

dredging (or dredge; prompt on "excavation"; prompt on descriptions like "digging underneath water" before mentioned)

To use this method on larger problems, it is often useful to implement a "tail call" to optimize memory use and avoid stack overflows. Common implementations of this concept in programming are calculating factorials, greatest common divisor, binary search, and the Towers of Hanoi problem. For the points, what is this non-iterative method of solving computational problems, where functions call themselves from within their own code.

Recursion (accept Recursive algorithm/program; accept Tail Recursion)

This phenomenon can be applied to current meters to measure water current velocities. In medicine, this effect can help assess the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue in an echo-cardiogram, and when applied to astronomy, the relativistic form of this effect can utilize electromagnetic waves to detect the rotational speed of stars and galaxies. For the points, name this effect, the change in the frequency of waves in relation to an observer.

Doppler Effect (or Doppler Shift)

Gauss's law can be proven from this equation if the superposition principle is fulfilled. A constant in this inverse-square law is equal to one over four pi times the permittivity of free space. That constant used in this law is approximately equal to 8.988 x 10^9. The electrostatic interaction between two point charges can be described by, for the points, what law that relates force to the product of k, q1, and q2 all over r-squared, named after a French physicist?

Coulomb's Law (or Coulomb's Inverse-Square Law)

One of the first references to this term for a type of computer program was in the first UNIX manual in 1971. This term was popularized by Ken Thompson in his 1983 Turing Award lecture "Reflections on Trusting Trust". These entities differentiate themselves from a virus by not injecting themselves into other files. For the points, name this type of malware that misleads users of its purpose, whose name derives from an Ancient Greek story of deception.

Trojan (accept Trojan Horse)

A model generalizing this phenomenon was solved in two dimensions by Lars Onsager as a lattice of interacting plus-one and minus-one spins; that model is the Ising model. This property persists even after a change in the applied field due to its hysteresis. Materials lose this property if heated past the Curie temperature. For the points, name this form of magnetism exhibited by nickel, cobalt, and its namesake, iron.

ferromagnetism (prompt on "magnet(ism)"; do not accept or prompt on "paramagnetism")

This man pioneered the method of infinite descent in proofs and frequently applied that method to Diophantine equations. This mathematician proved that a prime number must be 1 mod 4 to be the sum of two perfect squares, and his "Little Theorem" is one of the pillars of number theory. For the points, name this French mathematician whose "Last Theorem" was proved by Andrew Wiles in 1995.

Pierre de Fermat [[fehr-MAH]]

This structure consists of various gyri, including the non-functional gyrus rectus located in this structure's lateral portion. The functions of this structure are measured by Wisconsin Card Sorting and Token Tests, which examine response inhibition and language, respectively. Injury to this lobe may lead to personality changes, as seen in Phineas Gage after an iron rod severed this area of the brain. For the points, name this the largest lobe of the brain associated with problem-solving?

Frontal Lobe (prompt on "Cerebrum", "Prefrontal Cortex", "Frontal Cortex", or "Cerebral Cortex"; prompt on “Brain” before mentioned)

These mixtures, one of the three primary types, have particles ranging between one and one thousand nanometers in diameter. Crystals formed according to the principles of these type of mixtures are capable of self-assembly, and categories of these types of mixtures include emulsions and foams. For the points, name this type of discrete or continuous mixture that can be created by mixing, for example, Jell-O powder and water.

Colloids (accept Hydrocolloids)

Because this substance stores as much as ten times more carbon dioxide than other ecosystems, scientists consider it the most efficient natural carbon sink on earth. The Tollund Man was preserved in an ecosystem containing this substance, which makes up fens. Sphagnum moss makes up most of this substance, which is made of decayed plant matter. For the points, name this substance that can accumulate in bogs.

Peat (accept Peat moss; accept Turf)

This compound is industrially produced in the anthra-quinone process. A solution of ferrous iron and this compound is used to treat drinking water as Fenton's reagent. Within eukaryotic cells, specialized vacuoles use catalase to break down this compound into water and oxygen. For the points, name this compound with formula H2O2 which, like isopropyl alcohol, is commonly used as a first aid antiseptic.

Hydrogen Peroxide (accept H2O2 before mentioned; prompt on "peroxide")

One form of this law is joined with Faraday's law to give an induction equation for ideal MHD. Another form of this law states that current density equals sigma times electric field. At low forward bias, this law does not apply to diodes, and the drops calculated by this law add to zero, according to Kirchhoff's loop rule. For the points, name this law that states voltage equals current times resistance.

Ohm's Law

Methods that measure this quantity include the concentric cylinder geometry, which consists of a spindle, inner bob, and an outer cup and a similar apparatus that consists of a spindle, cone, and plate. Air has the lowest value of the absolute type of this quantity while glass has the highest value. Glycerol has the value of 1 Newton-second per square meter in, for the points, what quantity that comes in the dynamic and kinematic types and describes a fluid's resistance to flow?

Viscosity (accept Absolute Viscosity; accept Dynamic Viscosity; accept Kinematic Viscosity)

Panama disease is characterized by the borders of leaves turning this color. This is the color of the pigments lead iodide and cadmium sulfide. The Aedes aegypti mosquito spreads fever named for this color. Instability or reactivity is denoted by this color on an NFPA diagram. In a flame test, sodium burns this color and Urania is also called -cake. For the point, name this color of ripe bananas.

yellow

Subsurface oceans of this molecule exist on Ganymede, Enceladus, and Europa. In 2015, NASA confirmed evidence of this molecule in Martian perchlorate salts. It is found under the carbon dioxide ice cap at Mars's south pole. Along with rocks and dust this molecule's frozen form makes up comets. For the point, name this substance thought to be required for alien life since it covers about 70% of the Earth's surface.

water (or H-2-O; accept water vapor or water ice)

The arrector pili are smooth muscles found in this organ. Langerhans cells and Meissner corpuscles are found in this organ. The stratum spinosum of this organ is composed of keratinocytes. Exocrine glands in this organ produce sebum. Melanin provides this organ with pigmentation. The dermis and epidermis are part of, for the point, what largest organ in the human body that can be affected by eczema and acne?

skin

Ptolemy's book on an aspect of this phenomenon describes within it seven tonoi. This phenomenon in the West is centered around sets like Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian. This phenomenon is vertically divided into harmony and horizontally divided into melody. For the point, name this art form transmitted via sound.

music (accept harmonics before “harmony”)

This programming language uses "duck typing" to denote objects. The site Reddit is entirely coded in this language, which uses namesake "Num" and "Sci" libraries for computing. This language invented by Guido van Rossum uses whitespace for readability, and has variables called "spam" and "eggs." Web servers often use, for the point, what programming language named for a British comedy troupe with a "serpentine" name?

Python

The change in this quantity associated with vaporization is around 10.5 R according to Trouton's rule. Boltzmann's definition of this quantity, carved on his gravestone, sets it equal to k times the natural logarithm of microstates. The second law of thermodynamics states that the total amount of this quantity never decreases. For the point, name this measure of disorder in a system, symbolized S.

entropy

The phi and psi dihedral angles of this group of molecules are plotted against each other on a Ramachandran plot. Molecules like dopamine and adrenaline are derived from an aromatic one of these compounds called tyrosine. AUG encodes one of these molecules called methionine. Peptide bonds form between two of these molecules. For the point, name these building blocks of protein.

amino acids

To define a unit for this quantity, scientists measure the hyperfine transition frequency of cesium. The "arrow" of this quantity is its "asymmetry," which is a property of entropy. The derivative of charge with respect to this quantity gives the current. Power can be calculated by dividing work by change in this quantity. Distance equals rate multiplied by this quantity. For the point, name this quantity that can be measured in seconds

time

This quantity names a maximum reached between the Paleocene and Eocene periods. Snow causes this quantity to fall as albedo increases resulting in more sunlight being reflected instead of absorbed. Density differences between salinity and this quantity drive the thermohaline circulation. For the point, name this quantity on the rise with global warming, measured in Fahrenheit and Celsius.

temperature

This constant was once measured using a sphere of ultrapure silicon-28. This constant is equal to Faraday's constant divided by the elementary charge. This number can be defined as the gas constant divided by Boltzmann's constant. This constant was once defined as the number of atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12. For the point, name this constant that is the number of particles in a mole, approximately 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd.

Avogadro’s number

For the formation of this material, Hans Jenny developed a five-factor state equation memorized with the mnemonic CLORPT. Aeolian processes can form a type of this material called Loess. Horizons of this material are separated into O, A, B, C, and R classifications. Humus is any organic matter deposited in this material. Sand, silt, and clay make up, for the point, what type of sediment that nourishes plants?

soil (accept dirt; accept earth; prompt on “clay”)

Uneven distribution of a substance in these cells is termed telolecithal, which leads to their meroblastic cleavage. The follicular phase and luteal phase are parts of a process that releases this type of cell. Polar bodies are formed during oogenesis, which produces these cells. These cells are arrested in prophase I in the ovaries. For the point, name these female sex cells fertilized by sperm that may contain yolk.

egg cells (or ovum)

A measurement device for this quantity uses a rubber bulb and is named for Karl Friedrich Mohr. Titrations can also be referred to as an analysis named for this extensive property, which is measured using a burette. This quantity is determined by reading the point at the bottom of a meniscus. For the point, name this quantity, which can be measured in labs using graduated cylinders in units of milliliters.

volume

The Heaviside step function of any of these numbers is zero. The norm of a vector can never equal one of these numbers, and defining the constant i extends the square root function to these numbers. These numbers were first described during the Han Dynasty, and the absolute value of any number is never one of these numbers. For the point, identify these numbers, which are found to the left of zero on the number line.

negative numbers

This element is the cation in an ethylene-containing compound, Zeise's salt. A non-nucleophilic base, the tert-butoxide of this element, is commonly used to favor E2 eliminations. A form of radioactive dating relies on the decay of this element's isotope-40 into argon. This element is found directly above rubidium on the periodic table and this element was first isolated from potash. For the point, name this alkali metal found in bananas and with the symbol K.

potassium (prompt on K)

The cuckoo bird is known as a "brood" type of these organisms. Apicomplexa is a large phylum of eukaryotes of this type that includes the protist Plasmodium. A tropical fungus that acts as one of these organisms can alter the behavior of ants. It's not a mutation, since organisms in a symbiotic relationship with them are harmed. For the point, name these organisms that target hosts to gain benefits, examples of which include tapeworms and leeches.

parasite (accept parasitism)

Iridescent PSCs are known as "nacreous" types of these objects. A cellular "mammatus" type of these objects may form with anvil shaped ones. Silver iodide and dry ice are used to "seed" these objects with their namesake "condensation nuclei." Jet engine exhaust can produce artificial types of these objects called contrails. Classifications of these objects include cirrus, stratus, and cumulus. For the point, name these fluffy-looking objects in the sky made of water

clouds

Deuterium and helium were made in a nucleosynthesis named after this event. he theory underpinning this event relies on the universe being homogenous and isotropic by the cosmological principle. The existence of cosmic microwave background radiation supports this theory. This event was followed by cosmic inflation. For the point, name this theory that the universe exploded out from one infinitely dense singularity

Big Bang theory

The German firm Badische Aniline & Soda Fabrik outpaced the Allies in phosgene production, critical in creating this weapon. The Italians broke the Geneva Protocol of 1925 by using this weapon in the Second Ethiopian War. The first use of this chemical weapon was at the Battle of Ypres during WWI. For the point, name this weapon made of noxious fumes with "Mustard ‘' and "Chlorine" variants.

Poison Gas

NMDA and AMPA receptors in these cells help them undergo long-term potentiation. Multiple sclerosis disrupts the ability of these cells to send action potentials. Grey matter is mainly composed of the bodies of these cells, while the color of white matter comes from the myelin sheath that surrounds their axons. Electrical signals cross the synapses of, for the point, what cells that make up the spinal cord and brain?

neurons (or nerve cells)

This element sits across from a double-bonded oxygen atom in the ring structure of Biotin. Arsenic and this element are found in orpiment and realgar. The Frasch process pumps superheated water underground to extract this element. Thioethers and thiols both contain this element. This element is used in vulcanization to cross-link rubber. For the point, name this solid yellow compound that smells like rotten eggs.

sulfur (prompt on S)

Theodor Leber names two diseases affecting this organ, one of which is his namesake congenital amaurosis. Drusen in this organ are an early sign of macular degeneration. Aqueous and vitreous humor are found in this organ, which contains rods and cones in the retina. Cataracts can form in the lens of this organ, which uses vitamin A. Irises and pupils are found in, for the point, what paired organs responsible for vision?

eyes

This element's hyperfine transition produces the 21-centimeter line. Hydrazine contains two nitrogen atoms and two atoms of this element. Bonds named for this element exist between two antiparallel strands of DNA and form between this element and oxygen, fluorine, or nitrogen. The antiparticle of this element consists of a positron and antiproton. For the point, name this lightest element with atomic number 1.

hydrogen

One queen in this modern-day country died due to an abscess after an early attempt at tooth extraction. The wheel was introduced to this country during its Second Intermediate Period by the Hyksos people. The engineering prowess of civilization in this modern-day country resulted in the Temple of Amun at Karnak and the Colossi of Memnon. For the point, name this country that produced the Great Pyramid of Giza.

ancient Egypt (accept Egyptians)

To avoid chromatic aberrations, Isaac Newton invented telescopes that work based on this process. At the critical angle, the "total internal" type of this process occurs, which is used in fiber-optic cables. During this process, the incident angle of the light ray before this process occurs equals the angle after this process occurs. For the point, name this process in which light bounces off of shiny surfaces like mirrors.

reflection (accept word forms like reflecting; do not accept “refraction”)

One of these substances named for Robert Grubbs containing ruthenium is used in olefin metathesis. Fuel cell membranes use plastic black as one of these substances. Toxic emissions from cars can be reduced using a "converter" named for these substances. These substances do not affect chemical equilibrium and are not consumed during a reaction, but they do lower the activation energy. For the point, name these substances that increase the rate of reactions.

catalysts

This scientist names inhibitory cells within the brain which are classified as Type One or Two based on their axon length. This man names a "stain" which was used to discover that brain tissue consists of individual neurons. An organelle named for this scientist passes vesicles through folds called cisternae. For the point, name this Italian biologist whose namesake "apparatus" packages proteins within the cell.

Camillo Golgi [[GOHL-jee]] (accept Golgi apparatus; accept Golgi complex; accept Golgi body; accept Golgi stain)

This structure's cortex is home to namesake granule cells, the most common type of neuron in the brain. This structure contains a set of GABAergic inhibitory neurons called the Purkinje cells. This structure, which sits behind the pons, regulates motor control and balance. For the point, name this region of the lower brain, the name of which comes from the Latin for "little brain."

Cerebellum (prompt on "hindbrain"; prompt on "little brain" or "brain" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "cerebrum")

When this substance is extruded underwater, it can form its "pillow" variety. This substance can be classified as either ʻaʻā or pahoehoe based on its texture and makeup. Pumice and obsidian are examples of igneous rocks formed by the cooling of this substance. For the point, name this form of molten rock created when magma reaches the Earth's surface.

Lava (do not accept or prompt on "magma")

At the Kamioka Observatory, these particles were discovered to have mass by Takaaki Kajita. Beta-plus decay releases a positron, a neutron, and one of these one-half spin particles. These particles come in three flavors corresponding to electrons, muons, and tauons, between which they oscillate. For the point, name these neutrally charged leptons, which are nearly massless.

Neutrinos (accept Tau neutrinos; accept Muon neutrinos; accept Electron neutrinos; prompt on "fermions"; do not accept or prompt on "neutrons")

First described by Thomas Addison, an autoimmune disease impacting this organ is the most common cause of pernicious anemia. Infections with H. pylori bacteria and misuse of NSAID painkillers are the most common causes of ulcers in this organ. This organ releases chyme into the duodenum of the small intestine. For the point, name this organ that digests food with its namesake acid.

Stomach (accept Stomach acid)

A high-pressure solvent is forced through a bed of tightly packed adsorbing material in this technique's high-performance variety. This technique uses a mobile and stationary phase and can be demonstrated with a coffee filter and marker. For the point, name this lab technique used to separate mixtures using namesake paper, which forms colorful bands.

Chromatography (accept High-performance or High pressure liquid chromatography; Accept Paper chromatography)

The planetary variety of these structures occur when a red giant expels its outer layers. The Pillars of Creation are a formation within one of these structures named Eagle. In the early 20th century, the Andromeda Galaxy was thought to be this galactic entity. The Crab is a well-known example of, for the point, what large star-forming clouds of dust and gas?

Nebulae (or Nebulasl accept Reflection nebula; accept Emission nebula; accept Planetary nebula; accept Eagle nebula; accept Crab [a]nebula)

This force is independent of surface area in Amonton's Law. This force is described by a namesake coefficient, represented with the letter mu, and comes in dynamic and kinetic varieties. Causing your hands to warm up when you rub them together, for the point, what is this force which resists an object's motion?

Friction (accept Dynamic friction or Sliding friction; accept Kinetic friction; accept Coefficient of friction)

This substance naturally sorts into distinguishable layers known as "horizon," and its "O" type contains the highest amount of organic material. Loam is a type of this substance particularly valuable for agriculture, and this substance can be enriched with humus. This substance is composed of organic matter, sand, silt, and clay. For the point, identify this substance in which seeds are planted.

Soil (accept Dirt; accept Earth)

One variety of these organisms can leave behind hardened scars known as their namesake "boot." Carmine dyes are made from a type of beetle that lives on these organisms, one species of which, Peyote, contains the hallucinogen mescaline. The pin cushion and Saguaro are examples of, for the point, what desert plant which is covered in spines?

Cactus (or Cacti; or Cactuses; accept Cactaceae; accept Saguaro cactus; accept Pincushion cactus; accept Peyote cactus)

One of these devices allows for reverse flow below the breakdown voltage. A triangle whose point leads into a line is the standard circuit notation for these devices. The simplest kind of these devices is a single p-n junction. For the point, name these devices that only allow current flow in a single direction, which include a notable "light-emitting" variety.

Diode (accept Light-Emitting Diode; accept Zener diode; accept P-N diode; prompt on "LED")

With Mascheroni, this man names a constant symbolized with a lowercase gamma. This man's namesake number is defined as the limit of "one plus one over n all to the nth power" as n approaches infinity, roughly equal to 2.718. For the point, name this Swiss mathematician whose namesake number is the base of the natural logarithm.

Leonhard Euler [[OY-lehr]] (accept Euler–Mascheroni constant or Euler's constant; accept Euler's number; prompt on "e")

This compound can trigger a runaway feedback loop according to the "gun hypothesis." This greenhouse gas is commonly trapped inside ice clathrates at the bottom of the ocean. This compound is the primary fuel found in natural gas. For the point, name this simplest hydrocarbon, a tetrahedral compound with chemical formula CH4.

Methane (accept CH4 before mentioned)

Proposed by Andrei Sakharov, these particles are theorized to decay into a neutral pion and a positron. These particles can capture an electron through inverse beta decay. These particles make up the nucleus of the protium isotope of hydrogen. For the point, name this positively charged baryon, which forms the nucleus with neutrons.

Proton

Some varieties of these animals from the Anthophila clade are able to communicate distance information through a "waggle dance." Neonicotinoid pesticides are considered the most common cause of colony collapse disorder among these animals. The "Africanized" hybrid type of these animals are often known as the "killer" variety. For the point, name these insects that live in colonies and produce wax and honey.

Bees (accept Honeybees; accept Africanized honeybees; accept Killer bees; accept Wallace's giant bee; do not accept or prompt on "wasps")

This element names a type of photoluminescence often contrasted with fluorescence. This element's allotropes include a tetrahedral white variety and an amorphous red variety. The primary ingredient in match heads, for the point, what is this element which is located below nitrogen on the periodic table, with atomic number 15 and symbol "P"?

Phosphorus (accept P before mentioned; accept White phosphorus or Tetraphosphorus; accept Red phosphorus)

The formation of this material lends its name to the Carboniferous period, during which it was deposited in namesake seams and beds. This material is made from the deposition and compression of ancient plant matter, which eventually solidifies to become peat and this material. Varieties of this material include lignite, anthracite, and the bituminous variety. For the point, name this solid fossil fuel.

Coal (accept Black coal; accept Bituminous coal before mentioned; accept Lignite or Anthracite before mentioned)

This field's structure is equivalent to the non-empty set A. This field takes its name from the Arabic for the "reunion of broken parts" or "bone-setting." According to the fundamental theorem of this field, at least one complex root can be found for every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients. For the point, name this field of mathematics used to solve for unknown variables.

Algebra (or al-Jabr; accept Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

A child with this condition is chronicled in The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. This condition can be treated with phenytoin or phenobarbital. Severe, hemisphere-isolated types of this condition can be treated with a split-brain procedure. Episodes of this condition can be induced by slashing strobe lights. For the point, name this neurological disorder, the most common cause of seizures.

Epilepsy (accept Epileptic seizure(s); prompt on "seizures" before mentioned)

This compound is oxidized by heating it with oxygen to form nitric oxide in the first step of the Ostwald process. Mixing this compound with bleach-containing substances produces toxic chloramine vapors. Fritz Haber discovered a process for, for the point, what simplest amine compound with formula NH3?

Ammonia (accept NH3 before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "Ammonium")

With Maurice Koechlin, this engineer built the Garabit Viaduct, and he built the interior pylons for the Statue of Liberty. One of this engineer's projects, which at the time was the world's tallest manmade structure, relied on an exponential shape and latticework to withstand high wind speeds. For the point, name this French civil engineer, who names a triangular tower in Paris.

Gustave Eiffel (or Alexandre Gustave Eiffel; or Bönickhausen dit Eiffel; accept Eiffel Tower or Tour Eiffel)

BlueMaxima's Flashpoint is a project dedicated to saving these programs made on Adobe Flash. One of the most popular frameworks for making 3D types of these programs is the Unreal Engine owned by Epic, used to make popular examples such as Rocket League and Fortnite. For the point, name these computer entertainment programs, early examples of which include Pong and Pac-Man.

Video Games (accept Computer Games; prompt on "Game(s)")

This organ is made up of several hexagonal lobules, which consist of this organ's namesake cells arranged around a central vein. In the Cori cycle, lactose is moved into this organ where it is converted into glucose. Long-term alcohol abuse leads to Cirrhosis, which leads to deterioration of, for the point, what large abdominal organ which removes toxin from the blood and produces bile.

Liver (accept Liver cells)

This is the largest body to have its existence predicted by the now-discredited Titius-Bode Law. The moons of this planet are named for Alexander Pope and William Shakespeare characters, including Titania and Miranda. This planet's axis of rotation sits at a 90-degree angle relative to its orbit. For the point, name this seventh planet from the Sun.

Uranus

President Warren G. Harding presented this scientist with one gram of an element she discovered while on a visit to the White House. This woman died of aplastic anemia as a result of prolonged exposure to her work with radiation. For the point, name this woman, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields: Chemistry and Physics.

Marie Curie (or Marie Salomea Skłodowska Curie; or Maria Salomea Skłodowska; accept Madame Curie)

The olm is a salamander species that is the only European vertebrate to exclusively live in these habitats. Unlike many insects living in these habitats, Leptodirus beetles retain their bright colors. Species that live in these habitats are referred to as troglobites. For the point, name these habitats inhabited by many depigmented and blind species, which are also a popular roosting spot for bats.

Cave (or Caverns)

Enhancer trapping is a gene expression technique commonly used in this organism that only has four chromosomes. Class 2 transposable elements called P-elements were discovered in the genome of this organism that contains recessive traits such as vestigial wings and ebony bodies. Thomas Hunt Morgan discovered the white-eyed mutation in, for the point, what insect model organism whose scientific name is Drosophila Melanogaster.

fruit fly (accept Drosophila Melanogaster before mention)

Using previous studies from Otto Meyerhof and Edward Buchner, Gustav Embden proposed a detailed ten-step outline for this process that is parallel to the pentose phosphate pathway. This process, which is catalyzed by enzymes such as phospho-fructokinase and hexokinase, is anaerobic and involves the input of two ATP molecules. For the point, name this first step of cellular respiration, which precedes the Kreb Cycle, and in which glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules.

glycolysis

This law describes systems with a compressibility factor equal to one, which are modeled by kinetic molecular theory. This law is equivalent to setting the A and B terms equal to zero in the van der Waals equation, which disregards particle volume and intermolecular forces. It was created from a combination of Boyle's, Charles's, and Avogadro's laws. The statement "P V equals N R T" is, For the point, what law that models a hypothetical state of matter?

ideal gas law (accept general gas equation)

This process is regulated by the methylation of cytosines at CpG sites, and proteins such as EGR1 and ETS2. The TATAAT sequence or Pribnow Box initiates this process in prokaryotes, while for eukaryotes, it is initiated at the TATA box. Following this process, a five prime cap and poly-A tail are added to its end product. RNA polymerase is the key enzyme of, for the point, what process in which a strand of template DNA is copied into messenger RNA?

transcription

The "Ping-Pong" mechanism can be used to describe the change of these molecules into intermediate forms. Michaelis–Menten kinetics help explain the activity of these molecules that can be activated or inhibited at their allosteric site. The "lock and key" model fails to explain the transition state that these molecules obtain when binding to a substrate at their active site. For the point, name these biological catalysts that help speed up chemical reactions.

enzymes (prompt on "protein(s)"; do not accept or prompt on "catalysts")

Guanylate cyclase is activated when this molecule binds to the heme group, and this molecule is the principal propellant used in aerosol sprays. Along with a molecule with a greater number of oxygen atoms, this oxide is responsible for pollutive phenomena such as smog and acid rain. For the point, name this diatomic molecule containing one nitrogen and one oxygen atom.

Nitric Oxide (accept Nitrogen Oxide; accept Nitrogen Monoxide)

Fragmentations of this organelle has been associated with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Molecules tagged with mannose-6-phosphate are directed to the lysosome from this organelle that receives COPII transported proteins at its cis face. Membrane-enclosed discs called cisternae are found in, for the point, what organelle that packages protein and lipid molecules into membrane-bound vesicles, often described as the "post office" of a eukaryotic cell?

Golgi Apparatus (or Golgi Complex; or Golgi Body)

The left recurrent laryngeal nerve loops under part of this structure. The incorrect positioning of this structure is one of the defects that make up the tetralogy of Fallot. The wall of this structure often "bulges out" in people with Marfan syndrome. The ascending and descending parts of this vessel are connected by its namesake arch. The semilunar valve named for this blood vessel connects it to the left ventricle. Blood is carried away from the heart by, for the point, what largest artery in humans?

Aorta (accept Ascending aorta; or Descending aorta; accept Aortic arch; accept Aortic valve; prompt on “artery”)

The surface of Mars is an example of the crescent-shape type of these topographical features known as Barchans. The removal of sediments cause surface depressions known as blowouts which are typically associated with the parabolic type of these topographical features, whose slip face is convex in shape. Draas are a large-scale version of, for the point, what topographical features that are mounds of sand formed by wind deposits?

Sand Dunes (accept Dune System; accept Dune Complex; accept Dune Field; accept Crescent Dunes; accept Barchan Dunes; accept Parabolic Dunes)

This structure can be classified into Piedmont and Tidewater types and cuts a U-shaped valley of surrounding bedrock to form a fjord. The retraction of these structures can result in the formation of drumlins or moraines. When these structures generally found in polar regions break apart, they form crevasses or large icebergs. Antarctica is made up of, for the point, what large moving body of dense ice?

Glaciers

This mathematical concept has a double type that only involves odd numbers, and a hyper type that form the discriminants of Hermite polynomials. This mathematical function increases faster than exponential growth, but slower than a double exponential function. For the point, name this mathematical function that is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to the input of the function.

Factorial (accept double factorial; accept hyper factorial)

VSEPR theory predicts that a water molecule will exhibit a tetrahedral arrangement of the hybrid type of these entities. The spatial orientation of the simplest type of these entities is spherical. With varieties that include the s, p, d, and f types, these are, for the point, what region in an atom that describes the location and wave-like behavior of an electron?

Atomic Orbitals (accept specific orbital types such as S, P, D, or F Orbitals before mentioned; accept Wavefunctions; accept Energy Levels)

Description acceptable. H.K. Erben suggested that this event was caused by deformed eggshells, while another debunked theory came from L.R. Croft, who proposed that this event was caused by cataracts. S.E. Flanders suggested that this event was due to the influx of caterpillars and their tendency to eat a copious amount of plant material, leading to the animals central to this event starving. The K-T boundary was characterized by, for the point, what event that is widely believed to have been caused by an asteroid impact, killing off an entire species of large reptiles nearly 65 million years ago?

Extinction of the Dinosaurs (accept answers synonymous to mass extinction of the dinosaurs; accept Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event; or K-Pg extinction event; accept Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event; or K-T Extinction event))

The quotient of these entities can be expressed as a solution to a system of linear equations via Cramer's Rule. These entities, which come in Singleton and Jacobian varieties, are non-commutative when multiplied. The determinant of a two-by-two variety of these entities is ad minus bc. For the point, name these rectangular mathematical entities that can be arranged in rows and columns.

matrix (or matrices; accept Singleton Matrix; accept Jacobian Matrix)

Though not known as an economist, this scientist conducted a study on the value of money in which he discovered an early form of Gresham's law and established quantity theory. This man's seminal work, On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, was not published until a year after his death in Poland. For the point, name this polymath who formulated the heliocentric model of the solar system.

Nicolaus Copernicus (accept Copernican System; or Copernican Revolution)

After her death in 1958, the work of this scientist was continued by Aaron Klug, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982. Raymond Gosling, one of this scientist's students at King's College in London, was responsible for taking Photo 51, an X-ray diffraction image of a paracrystalline gel composed of DNA fiber. For the point, name this chemist whose influence and uncredited work on the structure of DNA led to her being called the "wronged heroine."

Rosalind Franklin (Rosalind Elsie Franklin)

Binary types of this process are modeled on a McCabe-Thiele diagram. Refluxing is performed during this process to continually recondense vapors, and the "fractional" type of this process is often used to refine crude oil. Liquor is made by doing this process to fermented beverages. For the point, name this method of separating liquids based on their boiling points.

distillation (accept fractional distillation; accept pressure-swing distillation)

Access to these areas were limited in one location after soil samples found inside were positive for a fungus known to cause the white-nose syndrome. Within these areas are formations made of nodes of calcite, aragonite, or gypsum known as "popcorn", and another formation within these areas are made from sheets of calcium carbonates known as flowstones. The erosion of limestone forms, for the point, what natural, underground voids that contain stalactites and stalagmites, a place where spelunkers explore?

Caves (accept Caverns)

In quantum computers, this task can be accomplished by using Grover's algorithm. This task follows "pruning" in a notable solution to optimization problems. This task can be performed in depth-first or breadth-first ways in graphs, and a common demonstration of divide-and-conquer is the "binary" form of this task. For the point, name this task of finding a certain value in a given input.

Searching (accept depth-first search; accept breadth-first search; accept binary search)

The soda-lime type of this material can be made through the addition of sodium and calcium carbonate, while the volcanic type is naturally occurring. Boron trioxide is a major component of one form of this material used to make laboratory equipment. This amorphous solid is non-crystalline, and can be manufactured through a process known as "blowing". For the point, name this transparent material made of silica primarily found in windows.

glass (accept soda-lime glass; accept volcanic glass; accept glass blowing)

This set of numbers is not bounded above in the reals by the Archimedean property. Peano's axioms are a set of rules governing these numbers. The sum of the reciprocal of these numbers is equivalent to the harmonic series. This set of numbers is the intersection of the positive numbers with the integers. For the point, what set of numbers includes 1, 2, 3, and so on?

Natural numbers (accept Positive integers; accept non-negative integers; accept whole numbers; or counting numbers)

This stage of a star's life involves the contraction of its helium core and the expansion of its outer hydrogen layers, and this stage precedes the white and black dwarf stages. Low and intermediate-mass stars will become this type, and our Sun is expected to engulf Venus and possibly Earth when it becomes this type of star in five billion years. For the point, name these large, highly luminous stars.

Red Giants (prompt on "star(s)")

This force transforms charge in the tribo-electric effect, and can be depicted in Amontons Law, which states that this force is directly proportional to the applied load. The strength of this force is proportional to the normal force and can be related by a namesake coefficient symbolized mu. For the point, name this force that comes in static and kinetic forms and opposes the change in motion.

Friction (accept Static Friction; accept Kinetic Friction; accept Dry Friction)

The largest of these structures in the Western hemisphere is named for Jennifer Chalsty and can be found in Jersey City. Other notable American examples of these structures include the Hayden in New York and the Adler in Chicago. Archimedes is crediting with creating, for the point, what usually dome-shaped structures in which viewers can watch the projected movement of the solar system?

Planetarium (accept Jennifer Chalsty Planetarium; accept Hayden Planetarium; accept Adler Planetarium)

The human genome contains 54 genes of this protein in which mutations of its gene expression may cause Ichthyosis bollusa of Siemens or Steatocystoma multiplex. The alpha type of this protein is characterized into two types, type I and type II, both of which make up a subunit dimer called the coiled coil. Claws, feathers, and scales are made of, for the point, what fibrous protein that also make up human fingernails and hair?

Keratin (accept Alpha-Keratin; prompt on "Scleroprotein")

Some animals with this property have cryoprotectants that increase the concentration of solutes inside its cells, as well as antifreeze proteins that prevents the growth of ice crystals. Animals with adaptations for this property include the African lungfish, which buries itself in the ground in preparation for hibernation. For the point, name this property in animals, such as amphibians and reptiles, that require regulation of body temperature based on its external environment.

Ectotherms (accept Cold-blooded; accept Poikilotherms)

Types of this weather phenomenon include orographic, stratiform, and convective, and this weather phenomenon is measured using a udometer. According to the Thornthwaite system, the index relating to the effectiveness of this weather phenomenon in steppe vegetations ranges between 16 and 31, which classifies it as semiarid. For the point, name this weather phenomenon that formed when frozen or liquid water is released from clouds, whose subtypes include hail, rain, and snow.

Precipitation (accept Orographic Precipitation; accept Stratiform Precipitation; accept Convective Precipitation; accept Hail; accept Rain; accept Sleet; accept Snow)

This body's 1600-mile Aitken basin is one of the largest craters in the solar system. This body was likely formed in the "Big Splash," a collision with a Mars-sized object. This object contains a favorable landing spot called the Sea of Tranquility, and the gravitational pull of this object is responsible for tides. For the point, name this celestial body that waxes and wanes as it orbits the Earth.

Earth’s Moon (or Luna)

The power of a test refers to the ability to correctly reject one of these statements and avoid a Type Two error. If the p-value is less than significance level alpha, the null type of this statement is rejected in favor of the alternative type. In the scientific method, these statements are often written in an "if/then" format. For the point, name these proposed statements that can be tested by experimentation.

Hypothesis (or Hypotheses; accept Null Hypothesis; accept Alternative Hypothesis)

One surface feature of a satellite orbiting this body was described by NASA as a "mountain sitting in a moat." This body has not made a full orbit around the Sun since its discovery due to its orbital period being over 200 years. This object was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh and it is named after the Roman god of the underworld. For the point, name this body which, in 2006, was reclassified as a dwarf planet.

Pluto (prompt on “Charon” if buzz firstline)

The breaking up and recombination of molecules that contain this entity is known as their namesake "metathesis." Molecules that contain this structure between two carbon atoms are known as alkenes. Molecular oxygen contains this structure between its two oxygen atoms. For the point, name this structure, designated with two lines, where two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.

Double bond (accept Olefin; accept answers involving Two bonds; accept Alkenes before mentioned)

These are not mountains, but one type of these landforms is created due to slow convergence of tectonic plates and upward movement of the earth's crust. Another type of these landforms is formed due to the upwelling of magma and the accumulation of lava in layers. Dissected and volcanic are the two major types of, for the point, what features that are formed by thermal expansion and crustal shortening, and are elevated pieces of land with flat tops?

Plateaus (accept dissected plateaus; accept volcanic plateaus)

Short-period types of these objects originate from the Kuiper belt, whereas long period varieties come from the Oort Cloud. In 1994, one of these objects named Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashed into the surface of Jupiter. Solar wind causes the tails of these objects to always point away from the star which they orbit. For the point, name these icy bodies that orbit the Sun and include examples named Halley's and Hale-Bopp.

Comets (accept Short-period comets; accept Long-period comets; accept Periodic comets)

As a consequence of its high density, this body's atmosphere experiences super-rotation. Unique volcanic features on this body's surface include pancake domes and ticks. This body is the only planet to experience retrograde rotation. Due to its similar size, this body is sometimes called "Earth's twin." For the point, name this planet with the hottest surface in the Solar System, the second planet from the Sun.

Venus

In 1961, Bernice Eddy discovered that millions of people were exposed to SV40 through contaminated vaccines for this disease. During the Cutter incident, thousands of Americans were given faulty live-virus vaccines for this disease. This disease's first vaccine was invented by Jonas Salk in the 1950s. For the point, name this disease that attacks the nervous system and which can cause paralysis.

Polio (or Poliomyelitis)

Historically, females diagnosed with Rett syndrome were considered to have a variety of this disorder. Children with this disorder typically fail the Sally-Anne test, demonstrating a lack of theory of mind. The DSM Five reclassified this disorder as a spectrum, subsuming the previous diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome. For the point, name this neurodevelopmental condition characterized by low social interest and communication struggles.

Autism (or Autism Spectrum Disorder; accept ASD; accept answers relating to being Autistic; prompt on "on the spectrum" and similar answers)

The Bordes –Binford debate centered on the existence of ethnicities among this species. Ralph Solecki controversially claimed that the presence of flower pollen with a buried member of this species was evidence of ritual burial. This species is believed to have frequently interbred with the closely related Denisovans. The 1983 discovery of this species's hyoid bone suggests they had the ability to talk. For the point, name this close relative of modern humans, whose remains were first discovered in a namesake German valley.

Neanderthals (or Homo Neanderthalis; accept pronunciations which replace the "TH" with a "T" sound; prompt on "Neander Valley")

The vaccinia virus is used to inoculate against this disease and was first harvested from sores on the hands of milkmaids. During a 1763 siege, British and American soldiers used this disease as a bioweapon by distributing contaminated blankets. The world's first vaccines were produced by Edward Jenner to prevent this disease. For the point, name this deadly disease caused by Variola viruses, which was eradicated in the 1970s.

Smallpox (prompt on "Variola Major" or "Variola Minor" before mentioned)

This compound can be artificially synthesized using dimethylurea and malonic acid. This compound's primary metabolites are paraxanthine and theobromine. With theophylline, this compound is often used as a treatment for sleep apnea among premature babies. This stimulant is often extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide. Due to being an adenosine antagonist, this alkaloid compound is commonly used to prevent drowsiness. For the point, name this stimulant found in tea and coffee.

Caffeine (accept Guaranine; accept Methyltheobromine)

Along with zinc and copper, this element can be extracted with the Albion process. Common ores of this element include nagyágite, petzite and krennerite, from which this element can be extracted through cyanide leaching. Iron pyrite superficially resembles this element, lending it the nickname "fool's" this element. For the point, name this highly conductive precious metal known for its yellow color.

Gold (accept Au)

These biomes are the predominant environment in which the European chamois goat-antelope is found. The pika is a close rabbit relative found in these biomes. Guanacos and vicuñas are two South American camelids noted for living in these biomes. Plant-life on these biomes typically stops above the snow line. For the point, name these high-altitude biomes found in places such as the Himalayas.

Mountains (accept Alpine; accept Mountain range; accept Highlands; accept Himalayan Mountains)

This thinker was the first to note the color-changing camouflage of octopuses in his book History of Animals. In On the Heavenly Spheres, this thinker claimed that the stars were suspended in an imperishable aether. This thinker posited the prime mover in his Physics. For the point, name this Greek philosopher who wrote the Nichomachean Ethics and tutored Alexander the Great.

Aristotle (or Aristoteles)

Several patients with aphakia have claimed to be able to perceive this kind of radiation. This type of radiation creates free radicals by reacting with CFCs, which can damage the ozone layer. This kind of radiation creates vitamin D from ergosterol and 7-dehydrocholesterol. The primary cause of sunburns, for the point, what is this type of electromagnetic radiation which has wavelengths longer than x-rays, but shorter than visible light?

Ultraviolet Radiation (or UV Radiation; prompt on "radiation")

One technology using this type of radiation was invented by Manne Siegbahn. A type of crystallography using this radiation was used by Rosalind Franklin to take a photo of the structure of DNA. The discovery of this type of radiation earned Wilhelm Röntgen a Nobel Prize in Physics. For the point, name this type of radiation with a lower frequency than gamma rays, which can be used to image bones.

X-rays (or X-Radiation; accept Röntgen Radiation before "Röntgen")

In a wheel and axle system with equal wheel and axle mass, this quantity for the wheel is equal to mass times radius squared. For a belt and pulley system, this quantity is equal to the axial force on the belt multiplied by the radius of the drive pulley. This quantity, symbolized tau, is the time derivative of angular momentum. For the point, name this rotational analogue of linear force.

Torque (accept Moment, Moment of force, Rotational force, or Turning effect)

This biological order has four of five species as members of the Tachyglossidae genus. That genus of this order is divided into short-beaked and long-beaked species, with those animals being called echidnas or spiny anteaters. This order is the smallest of the three that form its class, alongside placentals and marsupials, and all extant species are native to Australia. For the point, name this smallest order of mammals, which includes the platypus and has egg-laying members.

Monotremes (or Monotremata)

Many moon rocks have a large concentration of one type of these minerals called anorthite. Alkali types of these minerals have lower specific gravity than their plagioclase and orthoclase types. A subclass of these minerals constitutes the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series, and a subclass of these minerals defines six on the Mohs hardness scale. For the point, name this most abundant class of minerals in Earth's crust.

Feldspars (accept Plagioclase Feldspars; accept Orthoclase Feldspars; accept Alkali Feldspars)

Like arthropods, members of this phylum utilize copper-based hemocyanins to transport oxygen in the body. Members of this phylum possess a mantle that contains a large cavity for feeding and excretion. Many members of this phylum possess a tongue-like structure called a radula. Cephalopods, gastropods, and bivalves belong to, for the point, what largest marine phylum of invertebrates that includes clams and snails?

Mollusca (or Molluscs)

X-bracing has been used for some of these structures in Chicago, while the trussed tube concept was applied to examples of these structures like the Onterie Center. Tube framing superseded the steel frame design of these structures, which were pioneered by Fazlur Rahman Khan. These structures often make use of sky lobbies to expand service core via elevators. For the point, name these towering buildings that include the Burj Khalifa.

Skyscrapers (accept Supertalls; prompt on "High-rises"; prompt on "Buildings")

Common types of these things use the molecule Tris along with EDTA, and include the TAE and TBE varieties, which are often used during gel electrophoresis. In the human body, a mixture of carbonic acid and bicarbonate form a system used to maintain the quality of blood that acts as one of these entities. The pH of these solutions can be estimated via the Henderson-Hasselbach equation. A weak acid and its conjugate base make up, for the point, what solutions that can resist changes in pH level?

buffers (or buffer solution/agent)

This software's original name was Freax, a portmanteau of "free", "freak", and "x". Debian and Ubuntu are popular distributions of this software. This software originally employed the EXT File System, though most modern distributions use EXT4. For the point, name this Open-Source operating system, originally developed by Linus Torvalds, whose mascot is a penguin named Tux.

Linux (accept GNU/Linux; prompt on "Unix")

Individuals infected with this disease may exhibit Bannwarth syndrome. The bacterium that causes this disease come from the genus Borrelia, and those spirochete class bacteria makes this disease hard to treat by creating a biofilm that allows it to hide within many areas of the body. A bull's-eye pattern rash is a common symptom of, for the point, what vector-borne disease that is contracted from the bite of a deer tick?

Lyme Disease (accept Lyme Borreliosis; accept Lyme Neuroborreliosis; prompt on "Borrelia" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever")

A relation named for a letter describing this quantity and sigma describes black holes. Luminosity is proportional to this quantity to the 3.5 power for main-sequence stars. Low values of this quantity for a star never enter the asymptotic giant branch of stellar evolution. Units for this quantity are often expressed in terms of the Sun. For the point, name this quantity of how much matter a star contains.

Stellar mass (prompt on “M” or “M-sigma relation”)

Manhattan plots can represent "association studies" named for these things, which link nucleotide variation to disease traits. The first complete map of one of these things for a eukaryote was created for Baker's yeast. James Watson led a project that used high-throughput sequencing to map these things for Homo sapiens. For the point, what term refers to the entire genetic sequence of an organism?

Genome (accept Human Genome Project; accept Genome-wide Association Studies; prompt on "genes" or "DNA")

This operation describes the runtime for the fastest known algorithm that solves the traveling salesman problem. This operation is performed on "cos(x) + i sin(x)" in De Moivre's formula. This operation's second input is nt in the compound interest formula. When this operation has a base of two, it is the same as doubling. For the point, name this operation that multiplies a number by itself.

Exponentiation (or Exponential; accept Power)

In Conway's Game of Life, the boat, long tail, and glider occupy this number of cells. This Wilson prime is also the third Catalan number and the fifth of the Fibonacci numbers. This number appears under the square root in the numerator of the golden number, and this number is also the value of the hypotenuse of the smallest Pythagorean triple. For the point, identify this number, the atomic number of boron, as well as the total sides in a pentagon.

Five

Objects from this region are disrupted by a dwarf star every 27 million years, according to the Nemesis hypothesis. The inner part of this location is sometimes called the Hills cloud, and the dwarf planet Sedna is located in this region beyond the Kuiper Belt. For the point, name this proposed location for the source of long-period comets, named for a Dutch astronomer.

Ӧpik-Oort Cloud

The transition between minerals rich in sodium and minerals rich in this element make up the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series. Along with magnesium, this metal is present in dolomite, and it is also found in aragonite and calcite. This element's carbonate makes up the shells of many marine animals. A metal found in limestone, this is, for the point, what element, the main constituent of bone?

Calcium (or Ca)

This scientist failed to determine the shape of DNA by proposing a triple-helical model. In 1954, this scientist won a Nobel Peace Prize for his opposition to weapons of mass destruction. To treat heart disease and prevent colds, this scientist controversially advocated for megadoses of vitamin C. Electronegativity is measured within a range from 0.7 to 4 on a scale named after, for the point, what American chemist who wrote The Nature of the Chemical Bond?

Linus Pauling (or Linus Carl Pauling; accept Pauling Scale)

Laura Ingalls Wilder wrote The Long Winter detailing her and her family's efforts to survive during one of these events. The Storm of the Century caused one of these natural events to occur in March 1993. The National Weather Service states wind speeds must be greater than or equal to 35 miles per hour in order to be, for the point, what type of severe, prolonged snowstorm?

Blizzard (accept Ground Blizzard; prompt on "Snow" or "Snowstorm")

The Ukok Plateau is one of the last remnants of this animal's namesake steppe, and resources from this animal were used to make the Venus of Brassempouy and Lion-Man statues. A handful of isolated populations of this animal on St. Paul Island and Wrangel Island survived until 4,000 years ago, and a frozen specimen of this animal was discovered at Yukagir. For the point, name this tusked, furry creature that roamed the earth during the last Ice Age.

Wooly Mammoths (accept Mammuthus primigenius; prompt on partial answers; do not accept or prompt on answers mentioning elephants)

Under D'Alembert's paradox, this force disappears within an incompressible and inviscid flow. At very low Reynolds numbers, the magnitude of this force on a spherical object is proportional to fluid velocity according to Stokes' law. Gravity balances this upward-acting force when a falling object reaches terminal velocity. For the point, name this force that opposes the motion of an object through a fluid.

drag force (accept air resistance; or fluid resistance; prompt on "friction")

The Dongfanghong I was the first of this kind of object launched by China as part of its "Two Bombs, One " campaign. Celestial bodies like Europa and Ganymede are considered the "natural" kind of this object and surround Jupiter. Artificial examples of these objects include the Soviet Sputnik 1. For the point, name these objects that orbit larger bodies.

Satellites (accept natural satellites; or artificial satellites)

Increases in the frequency of this phenomenon can be used to predict microbursts. The Miller-Urey experiment tested whether this phenomenon led to the first organic compounds on earth. St. Elmo's fire can be produced by this phenomenon, whose "ball" variety may be explained by the soliton hypothesis. This phenomenon occurs when the atmospheric field strength exceeds three million volts per meter. For the point, name this phenomenon seen during thunderstorms.

Lightning (accept ball lightning)

This scale's namesake worked with James Joule to discover an effect regarding the throttling of a non-ideal gas. In 2019, this scale was recalibrated around Boltzmann's constant. A constant term of about 273 is used to convert this scale's measures to Celsius, and this scale is named for the title held by physicist William Thompson. For the point, name this temperature scale that starts at absolute zero.

Kelvin Scale

This effect disagrees with classical electromagnetism and, in practical experimentation, this effect illustrates that the removal of negatively charged particles from a material surface occurs only when incident rays of light exceed a certain frequency regardless of change in intensity. Albert Einstein used this effect to explain the particle nature of light. For the point, name this phenomenon in which light emits electrons when hitting certain materials.

Photoelectric Effect

The length of this quantity over two is the minimum distance between antipodal points. Arc length can be calculated by multiplying this quantity by theta over 360. The constant tau is equal to the ratio between this quantity and the radius, and this quantity can be estimated by multiplying the diameter by 22 over 7. For the point, give this term for the distance around a circle.

Circumference

Ronald Fisher analyzed this man's data using statistics and determined that it was "too good to be true." One law named after this man states that alleles for separate traits are passed independently of one another. This scientist coined the terms "dominant" and "recessive" for the expression of traits and developed the laws of segregation and independent assortment. For the point, name this scientist whose experiments on pea plants provided the foundation of genetics.

Gregor Mendel (or Gregor Johann Mendel)

The dorsal face of this joint contains a triangular depression called the anatomical snuff box. The scaphoid, pisiform, and hamate are among the eight bones found in this ellipsoid joint, which attaches to both the ulnar and radial collateral ligaments. Repeated compression of the median nerve that passes through this joint causes carpal tunnel syndrome. For the point, name this joint that connects the arm to the hand.

Wrist (accept Radiocarpal Joint before "carpal" is mentioned)

Solvents in this phase of matter are used to partition solutes in the most common form of extraction. The HPLC type of chromatography uses a pressurized solvent in this phase, which also names the crystalline materials used in TV displays. This phase is bypassed by substances that undergo deposition and sublimation. At room temperature, bromine and mercury exist as, for the point, what state of matter?

Liquid (accept Liquid Crystals; accept Liquid-liquid Extraction)

The location of this body's orbital resonances corresponds to Kirkwood gaps. A system on this planet found between two jet streams was found to move in an anticyclonic manner in time-lapse photos from Voyager 1. A massive storm called the Great Red Spot is found on this planet, whose moons include Ganymede and Europa. Most asteroids are found between Mars and, for the point, what largest planet in the Solar System?

Jupiter

One of these entities named for its wheel-like shape contains the surface proteins VP4 and VP7 which induce the neutralization of antibodies. The Baltimore system is used to classify these entities, which typically replicate using the lytic or lysogenic cycle. Reverse transcriptase is used by the "retro" type of these infectious agents, which require host cells to reproduce. Bacteriophages are a type of, for the point, what pathogens that can cause Ebola, chicken pox, and the flu?

Viruses (accept Retroviruses; accept Rotaviruses; accept either Bacteriophages or Phages before “Bacteriophages” is mentioned)

Along with the disease called flacherie, this man found that Nosema parasites afflicted silkworms eggs in a disease called pébrine. This scientist found that nothing would grow in nutrient broth unless it was exposed to the air, thereby rejecting the theory of spontaneous generation and providing evidence for germ theory. For the point, name this French chemist and microbiologist, who developed a namesake process of heating certain foods and beverages to destroy pathogens.

Louis Pasteur (accept Pasteurization)

This is the heaviest particle created in beta-plus decay. "Thermal" and "slow" types of these particles are produced in nuclear reactors. Isotopes of elements are caused by differing amounts of these particles. These baryons are composed of one up quark and two down quarks. For the point, name these particles found with protons in atomic nuclei and which possess no electric charge.

Neutrons

Scientists studying this phenomenon rely on the Doppler shift in Platform Transmitter Terminals as well as using other methods such as radio-tracking collars. The "great" is exhibited by wildebeests, and the Sierra Madre Mountains in Mexico is the target destination of monarch butterflies after performing this 3,000-mile phenomenon from Canada. For the point, name this phenomenon animals exhibit when they move to another location in response to a change in their environment.

Migration (accept Great Migration)

Some plants in this biome have adapted to utilizing CAM photosynthesis or C4 carbon fixation to minimize the rate of transpiration. Features like ergs and oases can be found in this biome that can be formed by the rain shadow effect or weathering processes. The Gobi and Sahara are examples of, for the point, what type of biome characterized by little precipitation and arid climate?

deserts

Simon Baron-Cohen conducted the "Sally-Anne test" on children with this condition and proposed that people with it have "extreme male brain." Researchers have mostly rejected the theory that this condition is caused by "broken" mirror neurons. People with this disorder often struggle to respond to cues for joint attention and can be non-verbal. For the point, name this disorder characterized by difficulty in communication, whose forms include Asperger's.

Autism spectrum disorder (accept ASD; accept Kanner Autism; or Classic Autism; prompt on "Asperger's")